Cervus nippon, Temminck, 1838
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https://doi.org/ 10.5281/zenodo.6514377 |
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DOI |
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6514499 |
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persistent identifier |
https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4-FFCB-FFCA-FF6E-FE2CEC70F9A5 |
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Conny |
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Cervus nippon |
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23. View Plate 17
Sika Deer
French: Cerf sika / German: Sikahirsch / Spanish: Sika
Taxonomy. Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838 ,
Japan.
The first true members of the genus Cervus probably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern China, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in Japan. Japan was colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.
Subspecies and Distribution.
C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).
C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&CHonshu).
C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.
C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.
C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.
C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.
C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&Gansu).
C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.
C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884 — N Japan (Hokkaido).
It was anciently introduced to Solo I ( Philippines) and in 17" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is, Japan). Also introduced in 19" and 20" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe ( Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and USA. View Figure
Descriptive notes. Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and Hokkaido (with records of 176 kg for stags and 108 kg for hinds), the lightest in southern Japan. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of 98 cm for antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.
Habitat. Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than 40 cm is limiting. Up to 3000 m above sea level.
Food and Feeding. It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern Japan the deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.
Breeding. Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).
Activity patterns. Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to 8 m in length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of 35 km between summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.
Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In South Korea it is extinct, in North Korea very rare or extinct. In Taiwan it became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In Vietnam it is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In China there are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in China and all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for Ireland and 27,000 for Great Britain.
Bibliography. Apollonio et al. (2010), Bartos et al. (1998), Baskin & Danell (2003), Feldhamer (1980), Feldhameret al. (1985), Geist (1998), Groves (2006), Groves & Smeenk (1978), Hayden et al. (1994), Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006), McCullough et al. (2009), Miura (1984), Putman (2008), Suzuki et al. (2001), Zejda & Babicka (1983).
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