taxonID	type	description	language	source
039C87B1FF9D1F619D9DFE2E60F0FF03.taxon	description	The second preural centrum and first ural centrum are relatively elongate in Porichthyinae, with the length of the centra ranging from 1.3 to 1.5 times their depth, whereas the length of the second ural centrum is approximately two-thirds that of the first ural centrum. There is a dorsal prezygaphophysis on the neural spine of the second preural centrum that is prominent and contacts the neural spine of the preceding vertebra in all Porichthyinae; the size of the ventral prezygapophysis on the haemal spine of the second preural centrum is variable in the subfamily [absent in Porichthys greenei (UF 226105, 60.7 mm SL), Porichthys porosissimus (Cuvier, 1829) (MZUSP 45398, 40.0 mm SL) and Porichthys margaritatus (Richardson, 1844) (USNM 101730, 19.3 mm SL)]. Although absent in most Porichthyinae, a ventral postzygapophysis on the second preural centrum was found in two specimens of Porichthys notatus (VIMS 38017, 84.0 mm SL and VIMS 38018, 84.8 mm SL), one specimen of Porichthys plectrodon Jordan & Gilbert, 1882 (USNM 302134, 75.5 mm SL), one specimen of Porichthys margaritatus (UF 226009, 70.2 mm SL) and most specimens of Aphos porosus (Valenciennes, 1837); in all of these individuals, the postzygapophysis is substantially smaller than the prezygapophysis. Although the occurrence of a ventral postzygapophysis on the second preural centrum varies individually, members of Porichthyinae were the only taxa of Batrachoidiformes to have this process (Fig. 11 A, C). A dorsal prezygapophysis on the first ural centrum is present in most representatives of Porichthyinae, although its prominence varies both intraspecifically and ontogenetically [absent only in two specimens of Porichthys porosissimus (MZUSP 45398, 40.0 and 34.5 mm SL); and a single specimen of Porichthys pauciradiatus (UF 226549, 44.6 mm SL); for an example of ontogenetic variation, see Fig. 13]. A ventral prezygapophysis on the first ural centrum is present in most examined specimens of Aphos porosus, Porichthys notatus, Porichthys margaritatus and the Porichthys porosissimus / plectrodon species complex. Neural and haemal spines of the second preural centrum are elongate and are 1.1 – 2 times longer than the spines of more anterior preural vertebrae. Two specimens of Porichthys notatus (VIMS 38017, 84.0 mm SL and FMNH 122401, 120.2 mm SL) have a small, circular posthaemal cartilage of the second preural vertebra (Fig. 11 A). Each hypural supports five or six principal caudal-fin rays, with the ventral hypural usually supporting one ventral procurrent caudal-fin ray (although the support for the ventral procurrent ray varies intraspecifically; see Table 2). One or two dorsal procurrent rays are present. Two dorsal procurrent rays, both supported by the posterior epural, is the most common condition. One specimen of Porichthys greenei (UF 220105, 60.71 mm SL) does not have any procurrent rays. The single ventral procurrent caudal-fin ray is supported by either the ventral hypural or the distal caudal radial cartilage of parhypural. The margin of the parhypural flange varies from deeply to slightly concave, although it is almost straight in some specimens (Porichthys bathoiketes Gilbert, 1968 UF 228539, 73.5 mm SL). The articular edge of the parhypural flange projects anteroventrally, forming an acute stay that articulates with the haemal spine of the second preural centrum. A distinct triangular spine projects from the tip of the acute stay of the parhypural flage in most examined specimens (Figs 11 – 14). In Porichthys, the entire margin of the parhypural has spine-like projections. The epurals of Porichthyinae lie at a narrow angle (<40 °) relative to the longitudinal axis. The outline of the epurals varies from slightly convex (Porichthys porosissimus VIMS 1132, 55.7 mm SL) to curved (Porichthys porosissimus / plectrodon USNM 302134, 56.1 mm SL), although there is substantial individual variation in some species (see accounts for species of Porichthys below). Aphos: The epurals of Aphos porosus are markedly curved posteriorly, with a similar outline to that of most species of Porichthys (e. g. Porichthys notatus; see specific accounts for further details); the posterior epural supports both the first and second procurrent fin rays. One specimen (USNM 309739, 152.3 mm SL) has a long anterior epural that supports the first procurrent caudal-fin ray (Fig. 11 F); the anterior epural supporting a procurrent fin rays was not observed in other members of Porichthyinae. A ventral prezygapophysis on the first ural centrum of Aphos porosus is present in some specimens (e. g. USNM 309738, 77.5, 89.4 and 98.6 mm SL), but absent in others (USNM 309738, 152.3 mm SL and USNM 305505, 151.4 mm SL). Most specimens have a small ventral postzygapophysis on the haemal arch of the second preural centrum. Porichthys: All species of Porichthys bear spine-like projections on the margin of the parhypural flange. Although the number, orientation and prominence of the spines are both inter- and intraspecifically variable, all examined specimens of Porichthys have one or more spines projecting from the margin of the parhypural flange, in addition to the spine in the articular edge (Figs 11 – 14). Porichthys bathoiketes: The epurals vary intraspecifically in Porichthys bathoiketes. In the paratype (UF 12965, 93.8 mm SL), the posterior epural has its anterior tip contacting the midpoint of the anterior epural. This displacement of the posterior epural shifts the first procurrent fin ray away from the anterior epural. In UF 228539 (73.5 mm SL), the epural bones are similar to those observed in most species of Porichthys, i. e. the epurals are parallel to each other and the anterior epural contacts the first procurrent ray (Fig. 11 B). The epurals of this specimen have sharply tapered anterior tips that curve slightly to become parallel to the body axis, which is reminiscent of the condition found in Porichthys cf. plectrodon (see below); posteriorly, the epurals are convex. In the paratype (UF 12965), anterior tips of the epurals are blunt. Porichthys greenei: In Porichthys greenei, the distal tip of the anterior epural contacts the anterior margin of the posterior epural instead of extending posteriorly to contact the bases of the procurrent caudal-fin rays, as observed in all other species of Porichthys (Fig. 12). Porichthys greenei has extensions on the proximal region of the epurals that vary from a digitiform projection from the anterior tip (UF 226105, 60.7 mm SL) to a wide trapezoidal flange that extends most of the length of the epural (UF 226105, 44.0 mm SL). The triangular flanges on the posterior epural are typically smaller than those on the anterior epural and are restricted to its proximal edge. A flange is absent on the posterior epural in UF 226105 (60.7 and 50.7 mm SL). Porichthysgreenei isuniqueamongBatrachoidiformes in having reduced counts of caudal-fin rays, with ten principal caudal-fin rays (I, 4, 4, I) and a single ventral and dorsal procurrent caudal-fin ray. The only exception is UF 2260105 (60.7 mm SL), which has no dorsal procurrent rays but does have six dorsal principal caudal-rays; this might have been the result of damage and regeneration of the first dorsal principal ray. The parhypural flange is concave in Porichthys greenei but presents remarkable variation in the number, shape and prominence of spines (Fig. 12). As in all species of Porichthyinae, there is a distinct spine in the articular edge of parhypural (albeit weakly developed in UF 226105, 60.7 mm SL). Two specimens (UF 226105, 56.2 and 44.0 mm SL) have two additional prominent spines in the centre of the margin of the parhypural flange that are two times longer than the spine at the articular edge of the parhypural flange. In contrast, specimen UF 226105 (37.1 mm SL) has a single medial spine and UF 220105 (60.7 and 50.7 mm SL) has no other spines in the parhypural flange, although they have weak indentations in the posterior region of the flange. The structure of the neural spine of the second preural centrum is intraspecifically variable in Porichthys greenei. A full neural spine of the second preural centrum, including an elongate rod-like distal portion with a cartilaginous core, is present in some specimens (UF 226105, 50.7 and 37.1 mm SL; Fig. 12 A, B), whereas the distal portion is lacking in others (UF 226105, 60.7 and 56.2 mm SL; Fig. 12 C, D). One specimen (UF 226105, 44.0 mm SL) has a distinct distal component, although it is reduced and does not extend beyond the distal tip of the proximal component of the neural spine of the second preural centrum. Some specimens (UF 2206105, 50.7 and 37.1 mm SL) have two neural spines on the second preural centrum; the larger specimen also has two haemal spines on the second preural centrum. As in other taxa, this individual plasticity is likely to be a response to malformation of vertebral bodies during development (Witten & Hall, 2015). Porichthys margaritatus: The parhypural flange is straight to slightly concave in this species. The only exceptions observed were in one specimen (UF 226009, 70.3 mm SL) that has a sharp indentation at approximately the midpoint of the flange, and in another (USNM 101730, 33.40 mm SL) that bears two anterior bulges, both of which are slightly smaller than the spine on the articular edge. Spines on the parhypural flange, as observed in all other species of Porichthys, were found only in the largest specimen examined (UF 226009, 99.2 mm SL; Fig. 11 C), which has a small triangular anterior spine in the anterior region of the flange. All other specimens have only a distinct spine on the articular edge of the parhypural flange (Fig. 13). Larger specimens could not be examined to determine whether this variation is attributable to ontogenetic or individual variation. The epurals in most specimens of Porichthys margaritatus are simple rod-shaped elements that lack flanges or other outgrowths. However, in three specimens a short trapezoidal flange projects from the anterior extremity of the anterior epural (UF 226009, 89.4, 78.8 and 70.3 mm SL). The prominence of the dorsal prezygapophysis on the first ural centrum is highly variable, ranging from highly developed and contacting the base of the neural arches of the second preural centrum (UF 226009, 99.2 mm SL) to weakly developed (USNM 101730, 19.3 mm SL). This is likely reflective of ontogenetic variation, because smaller specimens typically have Columns ‘ Dorsal hypural’ and ‘ Ventral hypural’ indicate the number and type of fin ray supported by each hypural. Columns ‘ Epural 1 ’ and ‘ Epural 2 ’ represent the number of procurrent fin rays supported by the anterior and posterior epurals, respectively. Abbreviations: Br, branched caudal-fin ray; N, number of specimens examined; NBr, caudal-fin rays not branched (includes principal and procurrent). reduced or even absent dorsal prezygapophyses (UNSM 101730, 19.3 and 27.9 mm SL), whereas in the two largest specimens examined (UF 226009, 99.2 and 89.4 mm SL) these processes are well developed (Fig. 13). The smallest specimen to have a prominent dorsal prezygapophysis is 33.4 mm SL (USNM 101730). The specimen UF 226009 (70.2 mm SL) has a relatively small ventral postzygapophysis on the haemal arch of the second preural centrum (about half the depth of dorsal prezygapophysis on the first ural centrum). Another variation observed in this species concerns the presence of two neural spines on the second preural centrum (USNM 101730, 39.2 mm SL and UF 226009, 89.4 and 70.2 mm SL), with the last of these specimens also having two haemal spines. Porichthys notatus: In this species, the dorsal prezygapophysis of the first ural centrum is prominent and contacts the base of the neural spine of the second preural centrum in all examined specimens. The margin of the parhypural flange varies from straight to concave (USNM 104503, 98.3 mm SL and FMNH 122401, 120.2 mm SL, respectively). The spines on the parhypural flange are less prominent in Porichthys notatus than in other members of the genus. Although all specimens have a distinct spine on the articular edge of the parhypural flange, only USNM 104530 (98.2 mm SL) has a distinct spine in the anterior quarter of the parhypural flange. Specimens USNM 104530 (98.3 mm SL) and VIMS 38017 (84.0 mm SL) were found with a short indentation on the anterior part of the flange (Fig. 11 A). FMNH 122401 has a continuous margin of the parhypural flange, without any spine or indentation, except for the one on the articular edge. Other intraspecific variations include the presence of a postzygapophysis on the second preural centrum and the occurrence of distal caudal cartilages. Two specimens (VIMS 38017, 84.0 mm SL and USNM 104503, 98.2 mm SL) have weakly developed ventral postzygapophyses on the haemal arch of the second preural centrum, which are approximately half of the depth of the ventral prezygapophysis on the first ural centrum. Thus, specimen VIMS 38107 was the only specimen of Batrachoidiformes to have a dorsal postzygapophysis on the second preural centrum (Fig. 11 A); this process is small, with its length only about one-third that of the dorsal prezygapophysis on the first ural centrum. Specimens FMNH 122401 (120.2 mm SL) and VIMS 38017 (84.0 mm SL) have a small, circular posthaemal distal cartilage of the second preural centrum; no other specimen of this species examined has this element.	en	Vaz, Diego F B, Hilton, Eric J (2020): The caudal skeleton of Batrachoidiformes (Teleostei: Percomorphacea): a study of morphological diversity, intraspecific variation, and phylogenetic inferences. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 189 (1): 228-286, DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlz094, URL: https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/189/1/228/5697420
039C87B1FF9D1F619D9DFE2E60F0FF03.taxon	description	Dorsal prezygapophyses on the first ural centrum were found in all specimens> 48 mm SL. A single specimen of the Porichthys porississimus / plectrodon complex was found to have a small ventral prezygapophysis on the first ural centrum (MZUSP 45398, 35.0 mm SL); however, the occurrence of this ventral process is considered to be an intraspecific variation, because all other examined specimens lack ventral prezygapophyses. The epural bones are simple, varying from slightly convex to concave. The anterior tip of the anterior epural in MCZ 170729 (150.8 mm SL) is curved and contacts the neural spine of the second preural centrum. The anterior epural has a flange in the proximal edge, of variable prominence; it is distinct and trapezoidal in one specimen (VIMS 1132, 55.7 mm SL; Fig. 11 D) but slender in another (VIMS 1132, 81.6 mm SL). The epurals of MZUSP 45398 (40.0 mm SL) have angular extensions projecting from the anterior tip of both bones. The parhypural flange has two conspicuous spines at the midpoint region, which are highly protruded in VIMS 1132 (55.71 mm SL; Fig. 11 D). Specimens from the North Atlantic (e. g. VIMS 1132) bear an additional spine on the anterior portion of the paryhypural flange (Fig. 11 D). MZUSP 45398 (40.0 mm SL) has only a pair of spines at the articular edge of the parhypural flange, but lacks spines on the posterior region of its margin. The dorsal prezygapophysis of the first ural centrum is small and does not reach the origin of the neural arches of the second preural centrum. As in Porichthys margaritatus, the prominence of dorsal prezygapophyses likely reflects ontogenetic variation; the largest dorsal prezygapophysis was observed in the largest specimen (VIMS 1132, 81.6 mm SL), whereas the dorsal prezygapophysis is absent in the smallest specimen examined (MZUSP 45398, 34.5 mm SL). Other intraspecific variations observed include two neural spines on the second preural centrum (MZUSP 45398, 34.5 mm SL) and a marked hook-like process projecting from the posterior margin of haemal spine of the second preural centrum (VIMS 1132, 81.6 mm SL). Porichthys cf. plectrodon: The six specimens examined in the lot USNM 302134, which were collected from the northeastern coast of Brazil, have similar gill raker counts and otolith shape to specimens from the northern Atlantic; therefore, they do not allow confident identification between Porichthys porosissimus and Porichthys plectrodon, following the criteria proposed by Gilbert & Kelso (1971). However, all examined specimens of USNM 302134 were consistently found to have a distinctive hockey-stick-shaped posterior epural; this shape was not found in any other species of Batrachoidiformes (Fig. 11). Given the consistent dissimilarity between the shape of the epurals of the specimens of this lot and of the other specimens of the Porichthys porosissimus / plectrodon complex, we describe the morphology of these specimens separately. Based on locality, we suggest that these might represent Porichthys plectrodon, although a full taxonomic revision of this species complex is warranted. The posterior epural is convex posteriorly (most prominent in two specimens: 48.7 and 56.1 mm SL), but the proximal region curves anteriorly, resulting in a posterior epural with a hockey-stick shape. The base of the posterior epural is more gently curved in a 53.5 mm SL (Fig. 14 B) specimen than in other specimens, but the curvature is greater than that observed in Porichthys bathoiketes (UF 228539; Fig. 11 B); all other species of Porichthys have straight posterior epurals. The shape of the anterior epural varies from convex to concave, with an anterior flange extending through the proximal region and a digitiform outgrowth at the proximal tip (this latter projection is absent in the 53.5 mm SL specimen). The parhypural flange of specimens from this lot has a regular sinuous outline, with a proximal angular projection that bears a spine, followed posteriorly by a shallow concavity (Fig. 14). The 56.1 mm SL specimen has a sharp indentation on the posterior third of the flange. Specimens of the Porichthys porosissimus / plectrodon complex typically have a pair of spines in the articular edge of the parhypural flange, but a 48.7 mm SL specimen from this lot has an additional spine projecting proximally from the pair of spines on the anterior edge. Two larger specimens (77.1 and 56.1 mm SL) have another spine between the anterior edge and the proximal projection. Dorsal prezygapophyses on the first ural centrum were observed in all examined specimens of USNM 302134 (N = 6). As in Porichthys margaritatus, the prominence of this process increases during ontogeny. The smallest examined specimen (48.7 mm SL) bears weakly developed dorsal prezygapophyses, whereas these processes are greatly developed and contact the base of the neural spine in larger specimens (56.1 and 77.7 mm SL). Two specimens (53.5 and 75.5 mm SL) were found to have a small ventral prezygapophysis on the first ural centrum, the length of which is approximately half that of the dorsal prezygapophysis. The 75.5 mm SL specimen has a small ventral postzygapophysis on the second preural centrum, similar to the size of the ventral prezygapophysis of the first ural centrum. The posterior margin of the haemal spine of the 56.1 and 53.5 mm SL specimens has hook-like projections, which in the smaller specimen contact the articular edge of the parhypural flange. Other variation includes two neural spines on the second preural centrum on the 77.7 mm SL specimen.	en	Vaz, Diego F B, Hilton, Eric J (2020): The caudal skeleton of Batrachoidiformes (Teleostei: Percomorphacea): a study of morphological diversity, intraspecific variation, and phylogenetic inferences. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 189 (1): 228-286, DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlz094, URL: https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/189/1/228/5697420
039C87B1FF841F6B9E37FEDD61DAFA7C.taxon	description	The first ural and and second preural centra are slightly elongated, with the length of the centra approximately equal to their depth in Thalassophryne, but 1.3 longer in Daector. The length of the second ural centrum is roughly two-thirds that of the first ural centrum. Neither dorsal nor ventral zygapophyses are present in the ural centra of any specimen of Thalassophryninae. The second preural centrum bears a blunt or hook-like dorsal prezygapophysis that contacts the base of the neural arch of the preceding vertebra. The neural and haemal spines of the second preural centrum are 1.3 – 2 times longer than the more anterior spines on the caudal vertebrae. The dorsal hypural supports five or six principal caudal-fin rays, whereas the ventral hypural supports six or seven caudal-fin rays (six principals and one procurrent). Two dorsal and one or two ventral procurrent caudal-fin rays are present in most species of this subfamily. The only exception is Thalassophryne amazonica Steindachner, 1876, which lacks procurrent fin rays (Fig. 18; Table 3). The dorsal procurrent rays are supported by the epurals. The anterior (or single) ventral procurrent caudal-fin ray is supported by the distal caudal radial cartilages. The homology of these cartilages, however, is uncertain. The only specimen in which the distal caudal radials stained was of Daector dowi (USNM 206532, 79.1 mm SL; Fig. 15 A), which has two small and circular distal caudal radial cartilages. The topology of these cartilages indicates that they are either distal caudal radials of the haemal spine of the second preural centrum or of the parhypural. The second ventral procurrent caudal-fin ray, if present, is supported by the ventral hypural. The parypural flange varies from straight to strongly concave, and its articular edge is robust and may have indentations or spinations. The morphology of the articular margin of the parhypural flange is variable in Daector dowi, with some specimens having an acute articular edge that articulates loosely with the haemal spine of the second preural centrum (UF 226263, 43.1 mm SL). The largest juvenile specimens of Thalassophryne and Daector that were examined have a short hypurapophysis-like process on the lower third of the lateral wall of the first ural centrum that projects slightly in a lateral direction to form a narrow shelf, forming additional surface area for the origin of the m. hypochordal longitudinalis (Fig. 15 E, F). The hypurapophysis-like process of Thalassophryninae develops late in ontogeny. In the smallest examined specimens (Thalassophryne maculosa Günther, 1861, USNM 200558, 25.0 and 36.0 mm SL), the hypurapophysis-like process is not yet developed. The epurals have a simple rod-like shape. In most species they are convex, but in some specimens of Daector dowi the epurals are concave (see below). The distal tips of both epurals supports caudal-fin rays in Daector. In Thalassophryne, the posterior epural supports the anteriormost non-branched fin rays (which may be either procurrent or the unbranched ray of the principal series), whereas the anterior epural does not support any fin rays (although the distal tip of the anterior epural may contact the anteriormost procurrent fin ray in Thalassophryne). Daector: The hypurals support 11 principal caudal-fin rays (I, 4, 5, I), with the exception of a single specimen of Daector dowi (UF 226263, 84.0 mm SL), which has six dorsal principal caudal-fin rays (formula I, 5, 5, I). The total counts of fin rays of this specimen are the same as in other specimens (15), having a single dorsal procurrent ray instead of two as observed in all other specimens of Daector dowi. The morphology of the unbranched principal fin ray observed in other specimens and the dorsalmost branched caudal-fin ray of this specimen (UF 226263, 84.0 mm SL) is similar (i. e. slightly thinner than other principal fin rays), and they appear to be homologous. Therefore, it is likely that the posterior tip of the corresponding unbranched principal fin ray of UF 226263 (84.0 mm SL) branched during ontogeny, resulting in a branched fin ray. Daector reticulata (Günther, 1864) has one ventral procurrent fin ray (Fig. 15 B), whereas Daector dowi has two. The shape of the epurals and their support for procurrent fin rays and the shape of the parhypural flange is variable in Daector dowi (Figs 15 A, 16). The shape of the anterior epural varies from convex (UF 226263, 84.0 mm SL) to straight (UF 226263, 89.6 mm SL). From the 11 cleared and stained specimens examined, the anterior epural of seven specimens has a slender flange on the proximal portion of the anterior margin. The length of this flange varies from weakly developed (UF 226263, 84.0 mm SL; Fig. 16 E) to elongate, extending to the midpoint of the anterior epural in UF 226263 (43.1 mm SL; Fig. 16 A). The presence and prominence of the flange, such as the curving of the epural, do not appear to be related to ontogeny, because different conditions were observed in specimens of similar size. The anterior epural that does not bear the flange has a rod-like shape. The posterior epural is more consistently straight or slightly convex. In most specimens of Daector dowi, both epurals support caudal-fin rays. However, in one specimen (USNM 206532, 59.7 mm SL) the first and second dorsal procurrent caudal-fin rays are supported by only the posterior epural (Fig. 16 C). The anterior epural contacts but does not support the first dorsal procurrent ray, as in Thalassophryne. Another variation observed in the caudal-fin rays is the presence of three dorsal procurrent rays, with the anteriormost positioned between the neural spine of the second preural centrum and the anterior epural (UF 226263, 74.5 mm SL); this unique occurrence is interpreted as individual variation because all other specimens of Daector dowi have two dorsal procurrent rays. A similar individual variation (i. e. one dorsal procurrent caudal-fin ray between the neural spine of the second preural centrum and the anterior epural) was observed in Opsanus beta and Opsanus pardus. The parhypural flange in Daector is consistently concave, but the curvature of the margin varies from slight (USNM 206532, 59.7 mm SL) to highly concave (UF 226263, 84.0 mm SL). The latter specimen also has a unique elliptical invagination at the midpoint of the margin. The shape and the width of the articular edge of the parhypural flange are also highly variable. The smallest (UF 226263, 43.1 mm SL) and the largest (UF 226263, 89.6 mm SL) specimens examined have an acute anterior edge (Fig. 16 A, F). The edge is still angular but is slightly longer in specimens UF 226263 (47.9 and 82.3 mm SL; Fig. 16 B) than in UF 226263 (43.1 mm SL). All other specimens examined have a long articular edge of the parhypural, in which the articular surface is also variably shaped. For example, some specimens have a straight articular edge of the parhypural (USNM 206532, 59.1 mm SL and UF 226263, 84.0 mm SL; Fig. 16 C, E), whereas in others the articular surface is indented, with three or four spine-like projections [UF 226263, 60.0 mm SL (Fig. 16 D) and USNM 206532, 79.2 mm SL (Fig. 15 A)]. The variations observed in the morphology of the parhypural flange are not related to ontogeny, because the distinct curvature of the parhypural flange and the width and shape of the anterior edge of parhypural flange were found in specimens of similar size across the available size range, indicating that these differences are a product of individual variation. Another individual variation that was observed in a specimen of Daector dowi (UF 226263, 43.1 mm SL) was that it has two neural spines on the second preural centrum. Thalassophryne: All specimens examined of this genus have the first and second dorsal procurrent fin rays supported by the posterior epural (or the unbranched Columns ‘ Dorsal hypural’ and ‘ Ventral hypural’ indicate the number and type of fin ray supported by each hypural. Columns ‘ Epural 1 ’ and ‘ Epural 2 ’ represent the number of procurrent fin rays supported by the anterior and posterior epurals, respectively. Abbreviations: Br, branched caudal-fin ray; N, number of specimens examined; NBr, caudal-fin rays not branched (includes principal and procurrent). * Occurrence in a single specimen. principal fin ray in Thalassophryne amazonica), with the anterior epural not supporting any caudal-fin rays. The only exception is one specimen of Thalassophryne nattereri Steindachner, 1876 (MZUSP 47262, 114.8 mm SL), in which the first procurrent fin ray is supported by the anterior epural. In Thalassophryne maculosa, the epurals are robust but simple, rod-like elements in large specimens, without flanges. The parhypural flange varies from straight (USNM 199524, 64.4 mm SL) to concave (USNM 199524, 84.2 mm SL) (Fig. 17 C – F), and in most specimens it is smooth. USNM 220558 (36.1 mm SL; Fig. 15 D) has a short indented articular edge of the parhypural flange. The articular surface of a larger specimen (USNM 199524, 84.2 mm SL; Fig. 17 E) is longer than in all other examined specimens (approximately half the length of the parhypural flange) and is slightly irregular in its outline. In most specimens, the length of the articular surface of the parhypural flange is approximately one-quarter of the length of the flange. Thalassophryne nattereri has a straight parhypural flange, although its length is highly variable. For example, in specimens USNM 302333 (69.4 and 113.0 mm SL; Fig. 17 A, B) the articular edge is short and does not extend beyond the foramen from which the caudal vessels exit, whereas in other specimens [MZUSP 47262, 114.8 mm SL (Fig. 15 C) and MZUSP 47283, 70.4 mm SL] the articular edge the parhypural flange is long and extends to the middle of the ventral hypural. The robust epurals are rod-like and do not bear any flanges. In one specimen, MZUSP 47262 (114.8 mm SL; Fig. 15 C), the epurals are fused proximally, although the two elements remain distinct. Most specimens of Thalassophryne nattereri have the first and second procurrent fin rays supported by the posterior epural, as in other species of Thalassophryne; the only exception is MZUSP 47262, which has the anterior epural supporting the first procurrent fin ray (see Table 3). Thalassophryne nattereri has a total of 16 caudal-fin rays, with I, 5, 5, I as the most frequently observed principal formula. One specimen (MZUSP 47283) was observed to have 14 principal caudal-fin rays (I, 6, 6, I), although the total count of fin rays is the same. This specimen has a single dorsal and ventral procurrent ray, in contrast to two pairs of both dorsal and ventral procurrent rays in other specimens of Thalassophryne nattereri. Thalassophryne amazonica has a unique caudal skeleton among all Batrachoidiformes in that it does not have any procurrent caudal-fin rays (Fig. 18; Table 3). The overall arrangement of the skeleton is robust, particularly the epurals, which are thicker than the dorsal-fin rays. Furthermore, Thalassophryne amazonica is distinguished from the other species of Thalassophryne by the presence of five dorsal principal caudal-fin rays (I, 4, 5, I), in contrast to six dorsal principal fin rays. The parhypural flange has a wide articular edge that extends to the posterior margin of the first ural centrum and has a concave flange. One specimen (ANSP 178103, 76.9 mm SL) bears a unique spear-like process, which arises from the anterior region of the parhypural flange (Fig. 18 A).	en	Vaz, Diego F B, Hilton, Eric J (2020): The caudal skeleton of Batrachoidiformes (Teleostei: Percomorphacea): a study of morphological diversity, intraspecific variation, and phylogenetic inferences. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 189 (1): 228-286, DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlz094, URL: https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/189/1/228/5697420
039C87B1FFA51F4F9D9DF9A862B7FF03.taxon	description	Amphichthys cryptocentrus (4). Cleared and stained: USNM 144888, ~ 30.0 mm SL; USNM 226515, 126.7 mm SL. CT scanned: USNM 226515 (2), 151.5 and 145.7 mm SL. Batrachoides liberiensis (3). Cleared and stained: USNM 219393 (2), 90.2 and 105.8 mm SL. CT scanned: USNM 219393, 116.4 mm SL. Batrachoides manglae (2). Cleared and stained: USNM 226605, 20.4 mm SL. CT scanned: USNM 226605, 67.0 mm SL. Batrachoides pacifici (6). Cleared and stained: UF 227127 (4), 45.7, 54.3, 61.6 and 73.5 mm SL; USNM 144886 (2), 36.1 and 46.8 mm SL. CT scanned: USNM 144886, 98.0 mm SL. Batrachoides waltersi (3). Cleared and stained: USNM 367548, 60.2 mm SL; USNM 369505, 47.8 mm SL. CT scanned: USNM 367548, 150.9 mm SL. Batrachoides boulengeri (2). Cleared and stained: USNM 220127, 101.1 mm SL. CT scanned: USNM 220127, 129.6 mm SL. Batrachoides gilberti (3). Cleared and stained: FMNH 84549, 73.0 mm SL; UF 12013, 28.8 mm SL. CT scanned: FMNH 84549, 80.8 mm SL. Batrachoides goldmani (2). Cleared and stained: USNM 219383, 72.6 mm SL. CT scanned: USNM 219383, 116.0 mm SL. Batrachoides surinamensis (3). Cleared and stained: FMNH 88024, 76.9 mm SL; UF 23108, 113.2 mm SL. CT scanned: UF 23108, 110.5 mm SL. Opsanus beta (3). Cleared and stained: UF 89642, 38.1 mm SL; UF 153948, 60.5 and 75.8 mm SL. Opsanus pardus (4). UF 153830, 52.1 mm SL; VIMS 38032, 57.4 mm SL; VIMS 38031, 86.6 mm SL. CT scanned: VIMS 38033, 90.5 mm SL. Opsanus phobetron. CT scanned: UF 227128, 123.6 mm SL. Opsanus tau (14). Cleared and stained: VIMS 34755, 24.0 mm SL; VIMS 34756, 29.9 mm SL; VIMS 34763, 32.4 mm SL; VIMS 34765, 75.9 mm SL; VIMS 34769, 28.3 mm SL; VIMS 34770, 35.1 mm SL; VIMS 34771, 37.6 mm SL; VIMS 34772, 52.1 mm SL; VIMS 34778, 36.4 mm SL; VIMS 34781, 27.7 mm SL; VIMS 34782, 28.9 mm SL; VIMS 34783, 47.8 mm SL; VIMS 34783, 57.1 mm SL. Dry skeleton: VIMS 38995 (~ 230.0 mm SL). Potamobatrachus trispinosus. Cleared and stained: USNM 330064, 49.5 mm SL (paratype). Sanopus astrifer. CT scanned: USNM 209720, 246.2 mm SL. Sanopus barbatus (4). Cleared and stained: MCZ 44549, 27.5 mm SL; SIO 67 - 45, 90 mm SL. CT scanned: MCZ 44550, 36.0 mm SL. X-ray: USNM 211322, 250.0 mm SL. Sanopus reticulatus. CT scanned: UF 112976, 205.0 mm SL. Sanopus greenfieldorum. CT scanned: USNM 415327, 24.6 mm SL. Vladichthys gloverensis (5). Cleared and stained: FMNH 104587, 39.3 mm SL; USNM 218916, 52.0 and 60.4 mm SL; USNM 267789, 19.2 mm SL. CT scanned: USNM 267789, 50.0 mm SL.	en	Vaz, Diego F B, Hilton, Eric J (2020): The caudal skeleton of Batrachoidiformes (Teleostei: Percomorphacea): a study of morphological diversity, intraspecific variation, and phylogenetic inferences. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 189 (1): 228-286, DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlz094, URL: https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/189/1/228/5697420
039C87B1FFAA1F4F9DB7FEF86085FCF1.taxon	description	Porichthys bathoiketes. Cleared and stained: UF 228539, 73.5 mm SL. CT scanned: UF 12965 (paratype), 93.8 mm SL. Porichthys greenei (6). Cleared and stained: UF 226105 (5), 37.1, 44.0, 50.7, 56.2 and 60.7 mm SL. CT scanned: UF 226105, 64.9 mm SL. Porichthys margaritatus (11). Cleared and stained: UF 226009 (5), 70.2, 70.3, 78.8, 89.4 and 99.2 mm SL; USNM 101730 (5), 19.3, 27.9, 33.4, 39.2 and 41.3 mm SL. CT scanned: UF 225009, 121.8 mm SL. Porichthys notatus (5). Cleared and stained: FMNH 122401, 120.24 mm SL; USNM 104530 (2), 98.2 and 98.3 mm SL; VIMS 38017, 84.0 mm SL; VIMS 38018, 84.8 mm SL. Ontogenetic series: 32 specimens of size ranging from 5.4 to 21.5 mm TL. VIMS 40257, 6.5 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40258, 15.8 mm TL (14.3 mm SL); VIMS 40259, 14.6 mm TL (13.12 mm SL); VIMS 40260, 18.4 mm TL (16.1 mm SL); VIMS 40261, 18.5 mm TL (16.3 mm SL); VIMS 40262, 7.11 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40263, 6.8 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40264, 21.64 mm TL (18.6 mm SL); VIMS 40265, 17.4 mm TL (15.4 mm SL); VIMS 40266, 12.9 mm TL (11.9 SL); VIMS 40267, 11.4 mm TL (10.6 mm SL); VIMS 40268, 10.8 mm TL (10 mm SL); VIMS 20469, 13.1 mm TL (11.8 mm SL); VIMS 40270, 15.4 mm TL (14.3 mm SL); VIMS 40271, 15.2 mm TL (13.7 mm SL); VIMS 40272, 11.7 mm TL (10.9 mm SL); VIMS 40273, 10.3 mm TL (9.7 mm SL); VIMS 40274, 6.8 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40275, 8.4 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40276, 12.5 mm TL (11.5 mm SL); VIMS 40277, 9.8 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40278, 8.7 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40279, 8.3 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40280, 8.4 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40281, 7.8 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40282, 6.2 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40283, 7.3 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40284, 7.9 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40285, 6 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40286, 6.4 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40287, 5.4 mm TL (no SL); VIMS 40859, 7.4 mm TL (no SL). Porichthys pauciradiatus (2). cleared and stained: UF 226549, 44.6 mm SL. CT scanned: UF 226549, 50.3 mm SL. Porichthys cf. plectrodon: USNM 302134 (6), 48.7, 53.5, 56.1, 58.6, 75.5 and 77.6 mm SL. Porichthys plectrodon / porosissimus (5). MZUSP 45398, 35.0 and 40.0 mm SL; VIMS 1132, 55.7 and 81.5 mm SL. CT scanned: MCZ 170729, 150.8 mm SL. Thalassophryninae Daector dowi (12). cleared and stained: UF 226263 (9), 43.1, 47.9, 60.0, 65.2, 73.1, 73.7, 82.3, 84.0 and 89.6 mm SL; USNM 206532 (2), 59.7 and 79.1 mm SL. CT scanned: UF 226263, 105.7 mm SL. Daector reticulata. CT scanned: UF 225055, 144.0 mm SL. Thalassophryne amazonica (2). Cleared and stained: ANSP 178103, 76.8 mm SL. CT scanned: ANSP 178103, 94.3 mm SL. Thalassophryne natteri (4). Cleared and stained: MZUSP 47262, 114.8 mm SL; MZUSP 47283, 70.4 mm SL; USNM 302333, 69.4 mm SL. CT scanned: USNM 302333, 113.0 mm SL. Thalassophryne maculosa (5). USNM 199524 (2), 64.4 and 84.2 mm SL; USNM 200558 (2), 26.0 and 36.1 mm SL. CT scanned: USNM 200558, 137.6 mm SL.	en	Vaz, Diego F B, Hilton, Eric J (2020): The caudal skeleton of Batrachoidiformes (Teleostei: Percomorphacea): a study of morphological diversity, intraspecific variation, and phylogenetic inferences. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 189 (1): 228-286, DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlz094, URL: https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/189/1/228/5697420
039C87B1FFAB1F4D9E4DFE756092FA22.taxon	description	Ambloplites rupestris. Cleared and stained: VIMS 2363, 123.0 mm SL. Lepomis sp. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38044, 52.9 mm SL. Cottidae Artedius fenestralis. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38006, 42.5 mm SL. Enophrys bison. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38008, 27.5 mm SL. Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38013, 36.8 mm SL. Clupeiformes Clupeidae Clupea harengus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38007, 71.1 mm SL. Engraulidae Anchoa mitchilli (3). Cleared and stained: VIMS 38023, 54.6 mm SL; VIMS 38024, 50.7 mm SL; VIMS 38025, 41.3 mm SL. Dactylopteridae Dactylopterus volitans. Cleared and stained: VIMS 04951, 45.5 mm SL. Dactyloscopidae Dactyloscopus tridigitatus. Cleared and stained: MZUSP uncatalogued, 53.5 mm SL. Draconettidae Centrodraco oreganus. Cleared and stained: USNM 159234, 76.5 mm SL. Ephippidae Chaetodipterus faber. Cleared and stained: VIMS 8021, 44.1 mm SL. Epigonidae Epigonus pandonius. Cleared and stained: VIMS 7468, 119.0 mm SL. Gadiformes Gadidae Microgadus proximus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38012, 50.0 mm SL. Phycidae Urophycis tenuis. Cleared and stained: VIMS 4148 (2), 59.3 and 49.6 mm SL. Gerreidae Eucinostomus argenteus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 8091, 62.5 mm SL. Gobiesocidae G o b i e s o x m e a n d r i c u s. C T s c a n n e d: F H L uncatalogued, 79.0 mm SL. Gobiesox strumosus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38039, 58.1 mm SL. Gobiidae Gobiosoma bosc. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38040, 30.8 mm SL. Hexagrammidae Hexagrammos stelleri. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38009, 104.0 mm SL. Labridae Tautoga onitis. Cleared and stained: VIMS 533, 70.4 mm SL. Liparidae Liparis inquilinus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 1670, 40.0 mm SL. Liparis dennyi. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38060, 62.0 mm SL. Antennariidae Histrio histrio. Cleared and stained: USNM 269469 (2), 52.0 and 54.1 mm SL. Lophiidae Lophius americanus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 3267, 80.0 mm SL. Lophiomus setigerus. Cleared and stained: USNM 216983, 137.0 mm SL. Ophidiidae Acanthonus armatus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 7050, 124.9 mm SL. Ophidion grayi. Cleared and stained: VIMS 7445, 78.3 mm SL. Pholidae Apodichthys fucorum. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38005, 61.6 mm SL. Pholis laeta. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38015, 94.2 mm SL. Achiridae Trinectes maculatus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38037, 57.9 mm SL. Cynoglossidae Symphurus sp. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38022, 59.7 mm SL. Pleuronectidae Parophrys vetulus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38014, 60.3 mm SL. Isopsetta isolepis. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38010, 102.5 mm SL. Sciaenidae Bairdiella crysoura. Cleared and stained: VIMS 3 8 0 2 7 (7, d e v e l o p m e n t a l s e r i e s), f r o m 4.2 t o 10.1 mm SL Menticirrhus americanus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38029, 36.0 mm SL. Micropogonias undulatus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38041 (7, developmental series), from 8.2 to 27.2 mm SL; VIMS 38028 (7, developmental series), from 9.4 to 14.0 mm SL. Triglidae Prionotus carolinus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38030, 48.3 mm SL. Scaridae Scarus iseri. Cleared and stained: VIMS 25137, 29.7 mm SL. Stichaeidae Bryozoichthys marjorius. CT scanned: VIMS 14137, 176.8 mm SL. Lumpenus sagitta (1). Cleared and stained: VIMS 38011, 77.5 mm SL. Xiphister mucosus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38021, 55.6 mm SL. Stromateidae Peprilus triacanthus. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38000, 42.0 mm SL. Syngnathidae Syngathus sp. Cleared and stained: VIMS 38026, 35.0 mm SL.	en	Vaz, Diego F B, Hilton, Eric J (2020): The caudal skeleton of Batrachoidiformes (Teleostei: Percomorphacea): a study of morphological diversity, intraspecific variation, and phylogenetic inferences. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 189 (1): 228-286, DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlz094, URL: https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/189/1/228/5697420
