taxonID	type	description	language	source
D76CE4784003E52FFEE59EA0FBDCA0F9.taxon	description	Chaetopleurophora does not have any notable sexually dimorphic characteristics except the male genitalia. The male hypopygium has developed surstyli and an elongated median process under the cerci (figs 7 – 9 in Nakayama 2007). The photos show Chaetopleurophora in the general mating position but do not allow the observation of the hypopygium.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE4784003E52CFE8599CDFC5DA1EB.taxon	description	Coniceromyia is among the phorid genera with the most diverse secondary sexual characteristics (Ament et al. 2021). The males of this genus have sexually dimorphic structures in different podomeres of all legs, wings and head. The male forelegs are highly modified and diverse, with the foremetatarsus being unique for most species of the genus (figs 8 – 12 in Ament et al. 2020). The evolution and functional morphology of these structures were discussed by Ament et al. (2021) but without any direct evidence of their use. The photos we examined here are the first records of Coniceromyia mating and bring light to the possible function of some of these structures. Coniceromyia has a mating position unique in the family, with the male projected anteriorly, sometimes with his head even farther anterior than the female’s (Figure 2 A – D). This is possible due to the male being slightly larger than the female and the female abdomen bending upward during mating. The position allows the male to suspend its forelegs over the female’s head, in one photo even touching the female’s frons (Figure 2 D). Coniceromyia males have several sexually dimorphic features on the foreleg which could be in use in this position. In general, the male structures do not appear to be physically restraining the females; instead, they seem to be used as stimulatory contact devices, possibly contacting the frons or arista of the females (although a clear contact is only visible in Figure 2 D). Some of the main sexually dimorphic features of Coniceromyia are present in the male foremetatarsus (Ament et al. 2021). The males of all species have an apical anterodorsal setulose projection in this podomere (visible in Figure 2 E) which is often accompanied by a highly variable anterior excavation. Often, the foremetatarsus is also swollen or elongated and in some species has complex microsculpture in its excavation. These characteristics alongside the position of this tarsomere in the photos indicate that the males could be using the foremetatarsus to mechanically stimulate the females. Additionally, the morphological modifications of the foremetatarsus suggest the possibility of internal glands, which, in this case, could be producing secretions used in this stimulation. Some other male features are also corroborated as potential female stimulatory structures by their morphology and the mating position of the photos. This is the case for males’ elongated, ventrally curved setae on the apical foretarsomere, a ventral setulose process on the foretrochanter and elongated setae ventrally on the midcoxa (present in one, six and one species, respectively; Ament et al. 2021). All of these features would be able to contact the female in this male-forward position. Other male-exclusive features also seem suited for mechanical stimulation, such as the curved forecoxa of one species and the strong setulae, spines and microsculputural modifications of the foretibia and forefemur of others (Ament et al. 2021). However, none of these podomeres appear in the photos with a potential contact with the female. Figure 2 F shows an aggregation of Coniceromyia males over a leaf. This could represent the first non-aerial lekking behaviour recorded for the phorids (although some other forms of aggregation should be also considered). A lekking behaviour in the genus could be related to some other sexually dimorphic features of Coniceromyia that suggest a visual courtship function such as species-specific wing and foreleg patterning. The photos are not helpful in providing insights on the role of some other male exclusive characteristics such as the enlarged first flagellomere present in most species and the hind femur posterior group of tiny blunt setulae near the base (figs 17 – 23 in Ament et al. 2020). In contrast to Dohrniphora, which have setulae and ornamentation in the same position on the hind femur (discussed below), the photos do not show Coniceromyia males contacting the females with their hind femur. Additionally, the hind femur group of tiny blunt setulae of Coniceromyia are much less complex and diversified than Dohrniphora.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE4784000E522FF6C98D8FB71A4A6.taxon	description	The photos show a general mating position for Diplonevra with a few slight differences present in some of them. In one mating event, the female abdomen seems especially bent upward (Figure 3 A) but this could be artefactual as it was not seen in the other photos. In two other photos, a structure of the female terminalia is contacting the male (Figure 3 B). We identified this structure as two enlarged lobes that together form a roof-like plate covering the cerci. In another mating event (Figure 3 C, D), the male lifts both forelegs during mating, a behaviour not seen in other photos of Diplonevra. We do not know of any modified structure in the Diplonevra foreleg that could be related to this behaviour.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400EE522FF6C9C1AFD3FA19C.taxon	description	Dohrniphora has one of the greatest structural diversifications of the Phoridae, with males bearing almost 314 different types of ornamentation and chaetotaxy on the base of the posterior face of their hind femur (nearly one per species, eg figs in Brown and Kung 2010). The males of some Dohrniphora species also have other sexually dimorphic structures such as a patch of differentiated setulae on the forefemur (figs 325, 326 in Brown and Kung 2010), enlarged foremetatarsus (fig. 327 in Brown and Kung 2010) and hind coxal lobes (figs 307 – 314 in Brown and Kung 2010). Body-size sexual dimorphism seems to be widespread in the genus, with the males being much smaller than the females (Figure 3 E – H). Dohrniphora is one of the few genera in the family for which there is a detailed description of its mating habits (Barnes 1990). Barnes (1990) commented that, during mating, the Dohrniphora cornuta male ‘ pivoted on the bases of his hind femora’ and that he ‘ stretched his hind legs backward and waved them up and down at a rate of about twice per second, causing his entire body to rock’. Barnes (1990) also noted that the females waved their abdomen up and down, raising the males well above them. Barnes’ observations are corroborated by the photos we examined which show that this behaviour and mating position is widespread in the genus. All photos show the male hind femur modified structures at the level of possible contact with the female terminalia and the males being lifted to different heights (Figure 3 E – H). The male hind leg waving noted by Barnes suggests that the hind femur structures could be stimulating the female terminalia. Alternatively, the male lifting characteristic of the genus could be indicating a possible grasping function for the hind femur structures given that, during the lifting, the male’s legs almost do not contact the substrate. Probably also for holding, Dohrniphora males cross their hind legs during mating (Figure 3 E – H), behaviour not found in any other genera. The remarkable modifications of the hind femur of Dohrniphora males may include concavities, projections, lobes, spines and various types of setulae (Brown and Kung 2010). The morphological aspects of these modifications seem to fit both hypotheses of stimulating or grasping the female. We assume that the males’ hind coxal lobes could have a similar stimulatory or grasping function to their hind femur structures. The other male features on the foreleg are harder to explain considering that the males do not have any special contact of this leg with the female in the photos. Dohrniphora females have a characteristic pair of lateral plates on their abdominal segment 7 (visible in Figure 3 F, H) which was observed by Barnes (1990) to be contacted by the male hind femur structures during mating. It is unknown whether these female plates are morphologically variable across the genus or if they are under selective pressures related to male hind femur stimulation.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400EE521FE9B9B30FEF3A4A6.taxon	description	Neopleurophora has high species-specific variation in the hypopygium and phallus morphology, but no other significant sexually dimorphic features (Ament and Amorim 2013). The only photo we could examine of the mating of this genus shows a standard mating position.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400DE521FEA99C02FC3BA676.taxon	description	The only characteristic non-genitalic sexual dimorphism of Palpocrates is the male enlarged palpi. The photos examined show a standard mating position for the genus and do not help in understanding whether the males’ enlarged palpi play a role during mating. Notably, the male head is not too elevated and a possible contact between his palpi and the female dorsum seems reasonable, although not recorded.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400DE521FEAB9F72FB75A799.taxon	description	Phlebothrix is a genus originally described from four specimens from Nosy Be, an island along the north-west coast of Madagascar (Schmitz 1929). The surprising records of the genus posted on iNaturalist are from Reunión Island, between Madagascar and Mauritius. The males of the genus are much smaller than the females and have relatively larger antennae. The photos examined show a peculiar mating position for Phlebothrix with the male head and, in one of them, half of his thorax under the female wings (Figure 4 C). In this position, a possible use for their enlarged antenna could be to stimulate the venter of the female wings. However, this stimulatory function cannot be further corroborated by morphological data given that there is no detailed structural study of Phlebothrix male antenna.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400DE521FEA79955FEC0A2F3.taxon	description	Phora is the genus for which we found the most photos on iNaturalist, probably because of the size and conspicuousness of these phorids. Phora males are larger than the females and have a group of setulae on the posterior face of the hind femur and a highly variable hypopygia with developed surstyli. The photos examined show a standard mating position (Figure 4 E – F). A video posted by one of us (BVB) shows a Phora pair mating (https: // 10.5281 / zenodo. 14625309). The video starts with the male and female already in copula and the male performing rhythmic up-and-down movements of his hind femora which seem to be rubbing the female terminalia. As in Dohrniphora, the base of the posterior face of the male hind femur is the region in apparent contact with the female terminalia. This phase lasts for at least 25 seconds (captured by the video). After this, there is a short stop phase in which the male is motionless, followed by a few up-down movements of the male hind leg and detachment from the female. The female does not seem to make clear rejection movements in the video. In spite of the male hind femur’s possible role of female stimulation, this structure is not variable within the genus, contrasting with the case of Dohrniphora.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400CE527FE4598FBFC9CA052.taxon	description	Although we could not identify the genus in these photos, we selected this record due to the unusual mating position of the male under the female wings. Considering the male’s apparently reduced frons, lack of wing vein R 2 + 3, and conical first flagellomere, we believe the specimens could belong to Conicera Meigen. Notably, this is another case in which the male with a modified first flagellomere mates under the female wings, as in Phlebothrix and Stichillus, possibly using its antenna to stimulate the wings.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400CE520FEBD9D92FC44A528.taxon	description	Based on the few photos examined, Spiniphora has a standard mating position and no special action was identified. Note that Figure 4 G shows the well-developed right surstylus of the male in contact with the female terminalia (white arrow).	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400CE520FEA79C91FC10A6A3.taxon	description	In some photos examined, Stichillus is in the standard mating position (Figure 5 A, B). In other photos, the male is partially under the female wings, touching her abdomen with his foretarsi while the female has the wings angled in a ‘ V’ and slightly lifted (Figure 5 C, D). Males of some species of Stichillus have expanded apical foretarsomeres or even all foretarsomeres expanded laterally, but greatly shortened (eg S. latipes Borgmeier). This modification is accompanied by an enlarged pulvillus and thin tarsal claws on the apical foretarsomere (as in Brown 1992, figs 12 D – F). The photos show this structure in contact with the female abdomen.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400CE520FEA69E0BFC01A0F2.taxon	description	The photos show that body-size sexual dimorphism occurs in Triphleba with males larger than females (Figure 6 E) as well as females larger than males (Figure 6 A). In general, the genus apparently has a standard mating position, with males often reaching more anteriorly than usual, even contacting the female’s scutum (Figure 6 D) or base of the wing (Figure 6 A, B, E). In many species, Triphleba males have an enlarged first flagellomere compared to the female (eg Figure 6 D, E). The photos do not, however, help to understand the role of this feature. Additionally, a Triphleba female captured in copula shows a remarkable unreported characteristic for the genus: two large sacs expanding laterally from the abdomen, each bearing a group of stout long setae (Figure 6 G, H).	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400CE520FEBF99FBFEF3A1F2.taxon	description	Wharia is a genus known only from a few specimens, and to find records of this genus on iNaturalist was surprising. The only mating photo examined shows a standard mating position.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400BE527FEBB9B30FEE0A2AC.taxon	description	The photos indicate a standard mating position for Gymnophora; no special actions were identified.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE478400BE527FE459990FD8DA1E4.taxon	description	We also could not identify to genus level the specimens of Figure 7 E, F, but these records are especially relevant as they show for the first time a probable Phoridae female aerial swarm. The females’ abdomens are extended, with a pair of lateral sacs protruding, which seems to be another case of females displaying to males (as commented here for Triphleba, Megaselia and Phalacrotophora).	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE4784008E524FEB29D92FD3AA746.taxon	description	Given that Megaselia is one of the largest genera of the animal kingdom with about 1700 species described (Brown 2022), it would not be surprising if diverse mating patterns were found across the genus. Some of the photos examined show a standard mating position (Figure 8 F). Others show a much smaller male, the female with her wings slightly lifted and the male touching her abdomen during mating (Figure 8 H). Other than this variation in position, nothing else noteworthy was observed based on the photos. Brown and Porras (2015) described an extravagant display of Megaselia females from Costa Rica which evert abdominal sacs and flutter their wings to attract mates (10.5281 / zenodo. 14628212). They also highlighted that abdominal eversible sacs and display behaviour are probably present in the females of other species in Megaselia and in other phorid genera (such as Phalacrotophora, Physoptera and Syneura) as they have similar morphology of the abdomen with large areas not covered by tergites. We confirmed this prediction here by documenting abdominal sacs eversion in at least three other groups (Figures 6 G, H, 7 E, F, 10 C). Additionally, we found photos of groups of Megaselia females aggregating on leaves (Figure 8 C – D). One possible explanation for such aggregation could be to display and attract males, another possible example of sex-role reversal in the genus (Sivinski 1988).	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE4784008E524FEB09E62FE8CA08E.taxon	description	The Melaloncha males have a considerably larger foretarsus than the female and in some species there is striking sexual dimorphism regarding general body colour (Figure 9 B). In the two mating events examined, the females had their wings slightly lifted and angled in a ‘ V’, and the males were touching the dorsum of the female abdomen with their enlarged foretarsi, possibly stimulating it (Figure 9 A, B). The morphological variation of the male foretarsus among Melaloncha species is not fully studied, as most species are described based on female specimens, but in general the structural details are similar to those found in Stichillus (above).	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
D76CE4784008E53AFE939813FE07A214.taxon	description	11 mating events examined: Figure 10 A – H) Phalacrotophora species may be parasites of nests of solitary bees (Batra 1965), parasitoids of beetle prepupa or pupa (Disney et al. 1994), parasites of Eumenidae wasps (Borgmeier 1934) or predators of spider egg sacs (Muma and Stone 1971). These characteristics may influence their reproductive behaviour as reproductive availability in this genus is more circumstantial, depending on limited resources (hosts or prey). Wcislo (1990) described the reproductive biology of Phalacrotophora halictorum (Melander and Brues), a parasite of the nest of the solitary bee Lasioglossum (Dialictus) figueresi Wcislo (Halictidae). The mating observed by Wcislo did not include premating courtship; it did include several during-mating flights and the post-coupling behaviour of males rapidly drumming their forelegs, apparently on the female’s notum. We analysed photos and a video of Phalacrotophora species from different localities, probably representing multiple species of the genus, and found behaviours different than the ones reported for P. halictorum. The photos show Phalacrotophora females aggregating on leaves (Figure 10 B), possibly displaying to males (Figure 10 A), and expanding abdominal sacs during copulation (Figure 10 C). This eversion of abdominal sacs is probably common in the genus as many of its species have females with a tergite-free (membranous) area on their abdomen. Most photos of mating we found for the genus showed the male in a unique perpendicular position in relation to the female, in some photos on her right side (Figure 10 F), and in others on her left side (Figure 10 E). A video uploaded on YouTube explained the situation: the male is constantly shifting sides during mating, a unique behaviour in the family (https: // www. youtube. com / shorts / TTZaijcOVgw). We do not know of any case of similar behaviour in other insects, and it could be a behaviour of the male to twist and stimulate the female genitalia.	en	Ament, Danilo César, Brown, Brian Victor (2025): Phoridae (Diptera) mating behaviour: identification of general patterns, exceptions and the use of sexually dimorphic structures based on vast citizen science data. Journal of Natural History 59 (9 - 12): 739-761, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656, URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2025.2461656
