Spondias mombin L., Sp. pl. 371. 1753.

Mitchell, John D. & Daly, Douglas C., 2015, A revision of Spondias L. (Anacardiaceae) in the Neotropics, PhytoKeys 55, pp. 1-92 : 29-36

Spondias mombin L., Sp. pl. 371. 1753. Figs 2, 7, 9, 11, 12

Spondias myrobalanus L., Syst. nat. ed. 10, 2: 1036. 1759 (non L., Fl. jamaic. 1759), nom. illegit. Type. Based on Spondias mombin L.

Spondias lutea L., Sp. pl. ed. 2, 1: 613. 1762, nom. illegit.; Spondias lucida Salisb., Prodr. stirp. Chap. Allerton 172: 1796, nom. illegit. Type. Based on Spondias mombin L.

Spondias cirouella sensu Tussac, Fl. Antill. 3: 37, t. 8. 1824, excl. synonyms of Spondias purpurea L.

Spondias pseudomyrobalanus Tussac, Fl. Antill. 4: 97, t. 33, 1827. Spondias lutea L. var. pseudomyrobalanus (Tussac) Marchand, Rév. Anacardiac.: 156. 1869.

Spondias mombin Type [icon]: Tussac, Fl. Antill. 4: t. 33. 1827 (lectotype, here designated).

Spondias graveolens Macfadyen, Fl. jamaica 1: 228. 1837.

Spondias mombin Type. Ghana, Thonning s.n. (C n.v.).

Spondias lutea L. var. glabra , Engl. in Mart., Fl. bras. 12(2): 374. 1876.

Spondias mombin Type. Brazil. Minas Gerais: Contendas, w/o date, Martius s.n. (M, n.v.)

Spondias lutea L. var. maxima Engl. in Mart., Fl. bras. 12(2): 374. 1876.

Spondias mombin Type. Haiti, pro pertum Principes [Port-au-Prince], w/o date, Jaeger 208 (lectotype: P!, here designated; isolectotypes US!, W!, WU!).

Spondias myrobalanus sensu Sessé & Mociño, Flora mexic. 8(6): 119, pl. 105 (Torner coll. 0587, 0796). 1894.

Type

[icon]: Merian, Metamorph. Insect. Surinam 13, t. 13. 1705 (lectotype designated by Bornstein in Howard 1989).

Description.

Hermaphroditic trees, sometimes facultatively deciduous, reproductive height (3)6-25 m. Trunk 20-56 cm diam; outer bark brown or gray, rough (rarely smooth), usually deeply fissured, usually with corky, sometimes spinose projections, shed in rectangular plates; inner bark pinkish and orange-striate. Trichomes of two types: white and erect to 0.2 (0.3) mm long, and fine erect bristles to 0.05 (0.1) mm long. Leaves (1)3-10(-12)jugate, 14.5-42.5 cm long; petiole 3.5-13.5 cm long, petiole and rachis glabrous to sparsely pubescent; petiolules pubescent or glabrous, lateral petiolules (2-)3-10 mm long, terminal petiolule 5-40 mm long; basal leaflets 3.2-8.8 × 1.7-4.5 cm, (broadly) ovate, less often lanceolate or rotund, other laterals 5-25 × 2.4-6(8) cm, (oblong-)lanceolate to (oblong-)elliptic, less often ovate or oblong-oblanceolate, terminal leaflet 3.1-7.5 × 1.7-3.8(4.8) cm, lanceolate to narrowly ovate or elliptic; leaflet apex usually broadly and gradually acuminate, acumen 2-25(30) mm long, less often acute or rounded; lamina of lateral leaflets medially and usually basally asymmetrical, acroscopic side rounded to truncate or cuneate, basiscopic side cuneate to obtuse or attenuate, basal insertion usually asymmetrical and excurrent; leaflet margin flat and (sub)entire (on seedlings, first expanded leaflet blades crenate to serrate), sparsely ciliate with bristles; leaflets chartaceous to coriaceous, surface dull. Inflorescences (sub)terminal, developing when mature leaves are present, 15-60 cm long, 3-8 mm diam near base, broadly branched, secondary axes 2-24 cm long, axes with dense to sparse hairs to 0.3 mm long, sparser toward base or occasionally glabrous, also with sparse to dense bristles at branching points of inflorescences as well as on ultimate branches and on pedicel; bracts subtending inflorescences to 4.5 mm long, lanceolate and acuminate, bracts subtending secondary branches to 5 mm long, slightly broader than primary bracts, those on higher-order axes to 2 mm long, ovate, bracteoles 0.3-0.4 mm, deltate to ovate, bracts and bracteoles with usually dense bristles; pedicel 2-4.5 mm long overall, portion distal to articulation 1-2.6 mm long. Calyx 0.5-0.8 mm long, aestivation apert, lobes 0.2-0.6 mm long, (rounded-)deltate, with sparse hairs to 0.2 mm long and sparse bristles abaxially and on the margin; petals 2.5-3.2 × (1)1.3-1.4 mm, (ob)lanceolate, white, glabrous, reflexed at anthesis, apex slightly acuminate; stamens spreading, the antesepalous and antepetalous ones 2.5-2.7 and 2-2.3 mm long, respectively, the anthers 1-1.3 mm long, in dorsiventral view oblong, in lateral view oblong or less often elliptic; disk 0.3-0.7 mm tall, 0.1-0.2 mm thick, summit undulate and outer margin deeply sulcate, yellow; pistil 1.3-1.6 mm long, slightly ovoid overall, divided ca. half to 2/3 its length into subulate, apically divergent styles 0.7-1 mm long, stigmas extrorse, vertically elliptic. Fruits 2-4 × 1.8-2.7 cm, oblong or less often ellipsoid or slightly oblong-ovoid, maturing yellow or orange, apex and base rounded to truncate, surface smooth; endocarp oblong. Seedlings (fide Garwood 2009): first eophylls trifoliate, the petiole, rachis, and lower midvein with sparse stiff hairs, eophyll leaflets ovate, sparsely toothed, the margin glabrous.

Leaflet venation: Fimbrial vein present; secondary vein pairs 10-16, mostly straight, the spacing slightly decreasing near base only, the angle decreasing toward apex and increasing toward base, insertion decurrent; inter-secondaries present, average <1 per pair of secondaries and parallel to them, longer than halfway to margin but zig-zagging; intercostal tertiaries irregular-reticulate and admedially ramified, quaternaries irregular-reticulate and admedially ramified, areolation at tertiary and quaternary ranks; FEVs highly branched, dendritic, some slight thickening; fimbrial vein present; on abaxial side the midvein and secondaries prominent (secondaries rarely prominulous to flat), glabrous except midvein and secondary veins sometimes sparsely pubescent; on adaxial side the midvein prominulous or rarely flat, secondaries prominulous to impressed, glabrous.

Distribution.

Spondias mombin is widely cultivated in the moist tropics, but it is native in Mexico south to SE Brazil; it may be native to E Brazil but this is uncertain.

Ecology.

Native populations of Spondias mombin occur in tropical moist to semi-deciduous forests as well as gallery forests and forest islands in savannas, less often in floodplain forests (e.g., Little 8092, NY; see Peters and Hammond 1990); one collection is from white-sand dunes (Prance & Silva 24231, NY). In Central America, Spondias mombin has been considered a relatively early-successional species ( Nason and Hamrick 1997). In drier or more open conditions, the bark tends to be thicker and to produce spinose projections; reportedly it insulates against fire damage to the cambium ( Pinard and Huffman 1997).

Given this species’ broad distribution, its known phenology is broken down by region. Mexico: flowering Mar-May, fruiting May-Jul and Sep-Nov; Central America: flowering Mar-May (Sep); fruiting Mar-Oct; West Indies: flowering Mar-Jun (Dec); fruiting Apr-Aug (Dec); NW South America W of the Andes: flowering Nov-Jun (Sep), fruiting all year; N Venezuela and the Guianas: flowering Oct-Jun, fruiting Oct-Jun; W Amazonia: flowering Oct-May, fruiting Jan-Jun; NW Amazonia: flowering Oct-May, fruiting Jan-Jun; E and C Amazonian Brazil: flowering Jul-Apr, fruiting Nov; SW Amazonia: flowering Oct-Nov; fruiting Oct-Mar; C & E Brazil (S of the Amazon): flowering Aug-Feb, fruiting Sep-Apr.

In Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, Spondias mombin is evergreen ( Rodrigues and Samuels 1999), whereas in other parts of its range, such as C Panama and NW Costa Rica, it can be facultatively deciduous for up to two months ( Croat 1974a and Janzen 1985, respectively). In Guanacaste Province, NW Costa Rica, the species flowers toward the end of the 6-month long dry season (late April to early May). In C Panama, flowering can range Feb-May, and the local period of flowering is ca. two months, with the trees of any given population hightly synchronized ( Adler and Kielpinski 2000). At that same site, fruits required approx. five months to mature, and they ripened Jul-Oct with a peak in Aug-Sep. The fruiting season tends to be highly regular, but fruit production varies greatly among years ( Milton et al. 2005).

In addition to the animals that are hunted below Spondias mombin trees (see below under Economic Botany), animals that disperse the fruits include deer, peccaries (collared and white-lipped), coatis, kinkajous, squirrels, spiny rats, agoutis, saki monkeys, several species of bats, and reptiles such as ctenosaurs (Hladik and Hladik 1969, Smythe 1970, Croat 1974b, Heithaus et al. 1975, Vàsques-Yanes et al. 1975, van Roosmalen 1981, Kiltie 1982, Orozco-Segovia and Vázquez-Yanes 1982, Janzen 1985, Fleming 1988, Barreto et al. 1997, Adler and Kielpinski 2000, Henry et al. 2000, Lobova et al. 2009).

Common names.

As noted, Morton (1981) listed 96 different common names for S. mombin. This species has been recorded as being called jobo in Belize, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, northern Colombia, Ecuador (Esmeraldas), Guatemala, Nicaragua, Mexico (Oaxaca, Veracruz), Panama, and Puerto Rico, and called hog plum in Belize, Jamaica, Tortola, and Trinidad and Tobago. The species is generally called taperebá ( taperibá) in Brazilian Amazonia but more commonly called cajá or cajazeiro in the rest of Brazil ( Ducke 1946, Smith et al. 2007). Other common names include the following. Bolivia, Beni: cedrillo (Oscar et al. 1000, NY), aquiachá ( Sirionó, Vargas et al. 423, NY), Santa Cruz: azucaró de monte; nusucarr (Toledo et al. 556, NY); Brazil, Acre: cajá (Daly et al. 10175, NY); Amazonas: taperebá (Krukoff 8329, NY); Bahia: cajá mirim (F. Souza Santos 820, NY), cajarana (Hage 2186, NY); Pará: kaijuwa’ywa (Assurini, Balée 2569, NY), tawa-wa-'y ("yellow fruit tree," Guajá Indians, Balée 3380, NY), taperiwa’y ( Ka’apor, Balée 2212, NY), akãija’i ( Araweté, Balee 2033, NY), taperebá (S. A. M. Souza et al. 1226, NY); Roraima: cajá (Portuguese), canaxaron ( Uaicá-Mucajaí, Prance et al. 10979, NY); Dominica: mobin (creole-patois, Stijfhoorn et al. 867, GH, NY); Dominican Republic: jobo de puerco (Ososki & Saborío 468, NY); El Salvador: jocote jobo (Villacorta & Giammattei 2548, NY); Guadeloupe and Martinique: monbin, prûne monbin (Duss 3272, 322, NY), faux mirobolan (Tussac Fl. Antill. 4: 97, tab. 33. 1827); Guyana: plumtree (English), kubu (Arawak), Usiarao (Wr)(Reinders 81, NY); Jamaica: Jew plum (Yuncker 17086, NY); Mexico, Oaxaca: beea-chi (Zacateca, A. Miller et al. 318, NY), jumuy (Zoque, Hernández G. 2695, TEX), a2 hma3 o3 nei23 (Chinantec, Sabino, s.n., NY); Puebla: kwawxokot (Nahuatl, Mendoza & Amith 1430, NY); San Luis Potosí: k’inim (Huastec, Alcorn 1519, TEX); Netherlands Antilles ( Curaçao): hoba (Arnoldo-Broeders 3902, NY); Nicaragua: jocote jobo ( Guzmán et al. 578, NY), walak (Ulwa; Coe 2275, MO); Panama: jobo de montaña, (Miller et al. 261, NY); Surinam: mopé (Carib), hobo (Arawak)(Stahel 168, A); Venezuela, Amazonas: mopiyo’ (Panare, Boom & Grillo, NY), tanomami (Yanomami, Fernández 6814, NY).

Economic botany.

The range and habitats of introduced Spondias mombin overlap significantly. The species has a long pre-Columbian history of use (e.g., Ducke 1946); carbonized endocarps are abundant in middens of the extinct Marajoara culture of Marajó Island at the mouth of the Amazon ( Roosevelt 1991, as Spondias lutea ), and it is described and illustrated (as caia) in Frei Cristóvão de Lisbôa’s História dos Animais e Árvores do Maranhão (1968, fascimile of ca. 1625 manuscript). It continues to be an important plant resource in Amazonia ( Smith et al. 2007). In the West Indies, it was probably introduced, as suggested by its occurrence primarily in disturbed areas. It is well-established as an invasive species in tropical West African forests and savannas ( Ghazanfar 1989). It is more commonly cultivated in tropical Africa than S and SE Asia ( Kostermans 1991).

Most collections that cite uses note the edible fruit. The species can be dominant in some periodically flooded riverine habitats ( Peters and Hammond 1990), and individual trees can be highly productive, producing up to 10,000 fruits per tree ( Adler and Kielpinski 2000). The second most reported observation is that the fruits of Spondias mombin are eaten by game animals and in these cases Spondias mombin serves as a "waiting tree" where locals go to hunt in the fruiting season. The animals include Ateles (Croat 12291, NY), Alouatta and Cebus monkeys ( Balée 3380 and 2569, NY, respectively) as well as yellow-footed tortoises and pacas ( Balée 2033, NY), tapirs ( Ayres and Ayres 1979), and toucans (Miller et al. 217, NY).

Ayoka et al. (2008) provided a useful review of the economic and traditional uses of the species. The primary use of the species is for its fruits, reportedly high in vitamins C and B1 ( Keshinro 1985, Bora et al. 1991). The pulp is stewed, or made into preserves, or used to prepare juices and alcoholic beverages (fermented or for flavoring)( Cavalcante 1976, Lorenzi et al. 2006); one fermented product is referred to in Brazil as vinho de taperebá. ( Severo et al. 2007) The juice is available in restaurants and foodstores in Brazil, and the frozen pulp is commercialized throughout the country. The tree is commonly planted as a living fence or in home gardens, or planted for shade and food for livestock ( Morton 1981). In the Dominican Republic the fruits are fed to pigs (Zanoni et al. 3028, NY).

Other important uses of Spondias mombin are in traditional medicine (see review in Duke et al. 2009), both in its native range and where it has been introduced. The ethnobotanical literature and herbarium specimen labels provide many accounts of the uses of its roots, leaves, flowers, fruits (rarely) and especially bark for medicinal purposes, to treat myriad medical problems such as wounds, fever ( Balée 2569, NY), dysentery, vaginal bleeding, genital ulcers, respiratory conditions, intestinal and digestive ailments, ( Morton 1981; Grenand et al. 2004), malaria ( Milliken 1997), leishmaniasis ( Fleury 1991), colds (Yuncker 17086, NY), and as a contraceptive and abortifacient ( Offiah and Anyanwu 1989, Schultes and Raffauf 1990). Most often the preparations are infusions or decoctions that are either ingested or applied to the affected area. In Amazonia, the inner bark is ground into a powder and used as a disinfectant for wounds, and the boiled powder is used as an oral disinfectant (Nelson 749, 785, NY). In Nicaragua, a decoction of bark and leaves is used to treat malaria, diarrhea, infections, skin rashes, and sores (Coe 2275, MO).

Recently, compounds purified from Spondias mombin have been tested for a range of biological activity in lab animals, including antifungal, antimicrobial ( Corthout et al. 1994, Rodrigues and Hasse 2000), anthelminthic (Ademola et al. 2005), anti-viral ( Corthout et al. 1991, Ayoka 2008), and psychoactive properties ( Akubue et al. 1983, Ayoka et al. 2006).

The wood of Spondias mombin is used as a fuelstuff ( Balée 2212), but it is of poor quality because it is susceptible to rot and attack by insects ( Record 1939, Ter Welle et al. 1997); even so, it is used occasionally for construction, carpentry, and fenceposts ( Ayoka et al. 2008). The thick bark is carved to make handcrafts.

Additional specimens examined.

BELIZE. Little Coquericot, Belize River, 27 May 1933, Lundell 4356 (K). BERMUDA: Montrose, Sep 1913, Brown et al. 1656 (NY). BOLIVIA. Beni: Prov. Yacuma, Bosque de Chimanes, ca. 65 km SE of San Borja and 65 km SW of San Ignacio, Fatima logging concession, along base of Serranía Eva Eva, S of Río Chinzi near logging camp El Combate, ca. 15°30'S, 66°15'W, 27 Oct 1989, R. Foster & W. Terceros 13386 (F, NY); La Paz: Prov. Iturralde, 3 km NE of Buena Vista, 14°22'S, 67°33'W, elev. 180 m, 25 Apr 1995, DeWalt 316 (MO); Santa Cruz: Prov. Velasco, Reserva Ecológica El Refugio, 1 km W of camp on trail to saltpeter mine of Cerro La Pista elev. 250 m, 14°45'53"S, 61°02'21"W, 25 Jan 1995, Guillén & Roca 3034 (NY). BRAZIL Acre: Mun. Xapuri, Rio Acre, @ 3 hrs. by boat downstream from Xapuri and 1 hr. walking inland from left bank, 10°45'S, 68°20'W, 6 Nov 1991, Daly et al. 7174 (HUFAC, NY); Alagoas: Mun. Quebrangulo, Reserva Biológica de Pedra Talhada, 9°15'S, 36°25'W, 13 Jan 1994, Cervi et al. 7358 (NY); Amapá: Rio Oiapoque, E of Cachoeira Manauá, 2°18'N, 52°38'W, 17 Sep 1960, Irwin et al. 48317 (MG, NY); Amazônas: Mun. Manaus Reserva Florestal Ducke, km 26 Manaus-Itacoatiara road, 8 Jul 1995, M. Hopkins et al. 1454 (NY); Bahia: Ilhéus, campus of Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau, 14 May 1965, Belém & Magalhães 973 (NY); Goiás: Mun. Vila Boa, near Vila Chamada, ca. 15°10'S, 47°00'W, ca. 650 m, 19 Oct 1995, B. Pereira & D. Alvarenga 2895 (NY); Rio de Janeiro: Rio de Janeiro, Morro do Telégrafo, 18 Oct 1930, Brade s.n. (R 73761 (R). COLOMBIA. Amazonas: Aduche, Asentamiento Muinane, south bank of río Caquetá, 0°41'45"S, 72°05'45"W, 11 May 1999, Arévalo A. & Reyes R. 58 (NY); Antioquia: Mpio. San Luis, Corr. El Prodigio, Finca Dormene y Serranías, 6°06'N, 74°48'W, elev. 350-400 m, 25 Jun 1990, Cárdenas et al. 2866 (MO); Bolívar: Mun. Acandí, Corr. Triganá, Reserva Zazardí, 8°20'N, 77°10'W, elev. 100 m, 23 Mar 2006, Cardona-N. et al. 1644 (NY); Chocó: Mpio. Acandí, Corr. Triganá, Reserva Zazardí, 8°20'N, 77°10'W, elev. 100 m, 23 Mar 2006, Cardona et al. 1644 (NY); Magdalena: Santa Marta, elev. 800 m, 1898-1901, H. H. Smith 912 (COL, GH, MPU); Meta: Parque Nacional Natural Tinigua, Serranía Chamusa, Centro de Investigaciones Primatológicas La Macarena, Aug 1990, Stevenson 178 (MO). COSTA RICA: Guanacaste: Parque Nacional Palo Verde Area de Conservación del Tempisque, main trail do Sendero Guayacancito, 10°21'N, 85°22'W, 27 Mar 1992, Chavarría 590 (NY). CUBA. Santa Clara, Guajimica, 23 Mar 1910, Britton et al. 5817 (NY). CURAÇAO: Christoffelpark, 8 Feb 1999, van Proosdij et al. 581 (NY). DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Prov. Barahona, Sierra de Baoruco, at the cross of El Platán, 9.4 km NNE of Paraiso on road parallel to Río Nizaito, 18°03.5'N, 71°13'W, 23 May 1984, Zanoni et al. 30298 (NY). ECUADOR. Esmeraldas: Mataje, left bank of río Mataje, elev. 140 m, 9 Sep 1991, Jaramillo et al. 13845 (MO); Napo: Estación Científica Yasuní, Río Tiputini, NW of confluence with Río Tivacuno, 6 km E of Carretera Maxus, km 44 of branch to pozo Tivacuno, 0°59'S, 77°45'W, elev. 200-300 m, 26 Jun 1999, Romoleroux & Grefa 3239 (NY). Guayas: Guayaquil, highway W of town, 8 Mar 1955, Asplund 15634 (NY, R). EL SALVADOR. Ahuachapán: San Francisco Menéndez, beach of río San Francisco, 13°49'N, 89°56'W, 4 Mar 1994, S. Martínez s.n. (LAGU ISF0063) (MO). HONDURAS: Valle San Francisco, near El Zamorano, 13°58'11"N, 86°59'38"W, 789 m, 13 July 2001, Miller et al. 149 (NY). FRENCH GUIANA. Mont La Fumée, 3°37'N, 53°12'W, elev. 200-400 m, 4 Dec 1982, Mori & Boom 15324 (NY). GRENADA: St. George, Annandale Falls, 12°05'N, 61°43'W, 12 Jun 2001, Hawthorne et al. 480B (NY). GUATEMALA. Izabal: vicinity Lago Izabal, 15°15-25'S, 89°0-25'W, 2 May 1966, G. Jones & L. Facey 3240 (NY). GUYANA: Barima-Waini Region, Waini Peninsula, Shell Beach Sea Turtle Monitoring Camp, 8°23'57"N, 59°45'14"W, elev. 1 m, 5 May 2000, Hollowell 309 (NY). JAMAICA: St. Andrew: Campus Univ. College of West Indies, Mona, 15 Oct. 1957, Yuncker 17086 (NY). MEXICO. Chiapas: Escuintla, Jul 1938, Matuda 2617 (A, NY, TEX). Guerrero: Arcelia, Coyuca, 15 Sep 1934, Hinton 6599 (BM, GH, NY); San Luis Potosí: Mpio. Aquismon, Tancuime, 23 Aug 1978, Alcorn 1519 (TEX); Sinaloa: Mazatlán, 10 m, 26 Feb 1926, Gonzáles O. 5670 (K); Tabasco: roadside on levee, Aldama, near Comalcalco, 8 May 1963, West 25/1 (GH); Yucatán: Mun. Sucilá, 3 km W of Sucilá, toward Buctzotz, 21°14'30"N, 88°20'45"W, 22 Sep 1996, Durán et al. 2616 (GH, TEX). NICARAGUA: Carazo: Quebrada La Chota, trib. of río Escalante, ca. 7 km NE of Chococenter station, ca. 11°35'N, 86°09'W, elev. 100 m, 19 Mar 1983, A. Grijalva 2415 (MO). PANAMA. Bocas del Toro: Punta Peña, 8°54'52"N, 82°11'10"W, elev. 90 m, 30 Aug 2001, Miller et al. 259 (MO). PARAGUAY. Central: Trinidad, Asunción, Jardín Botánico y Zoológico [likely cultivated], 25°20'S, 57°28'W, Dec 1991, B. Pérez 1426 (NY). PERU. Huánuco: Prov. Puerto Inca, Dtto. Yuyapichis, Unidad Modelo de Manejo y Producción Forestal Dantas, 9°40'S, 75°02'W, 115 Oct 1990, Tello 258; Lambayeque: Prov. Chiclayo, Reque, 25 m, 7 Mar 1994, Quiroz 3451 (NY); Loreto: lower Río Huallaga, elev. 155-210 m, Oct-Nov 1929), Williams 4933 (A); Madre de Dios: Tambopata, Comunidad Nativa de Infierno, Hermosa Chica, 12°50'S, 69°17'W, 260 m, 10 Feb 1989, Alexiades & Pesha 262 (NY). PUERTO RICO: Caribbean National Forest, near Catalina Field Office, 18°17'N, 65°47'W, 31 July 1986, Boom & Rivera 6793 (NY); SURINAM: Tumuc Humac mountains, Litani River, 2°31'N, 54°45'W, elev. 190 m, 14 Aug 1993, Acevedo-Rodríguez et al. 6033 (TEX). TRINIDAD: coastal hillside, Pointe Gourde, 31 Mar 1921, Britton & Broadway 2647 (NY). UNITED STATES. Florida: Monroe County, Homestead, cultivated at Subtropical Experiment Station 19 Oct 1971, Gillis 11119, MO). VENEZUELA. Amazonas: Depto. Río Negro, elev. 540 m, 2°16'N, 63°31'W, Oct 1991, Chaviel 52 (NY); Apure: Distrito Pedro Camejo, bank of the río Orinoco, 35 airline km NE of Puerto Paéz, just NE of Isla El Gallo, 6°05'N, 67°13'W, elev. 40 m, 23 Feb 1978, Davidse & González 14459 (NY); Aragua: Tovar, elev. 3000 ft., 5 Jun 1855, Fendler 1310 (GH). Bolívar: Mun. Padre Chien, 24 km from El Palmar toward Río Grande, elev. 275 m, 8 °01'30"N, 61°51'40"W, 12 Apr 1997, Diaz et al. 3172 (NY); Zulia: Dtto. Páez, near Misión de Guana, between highway and km 4 of road E of CarrasqueroGuanaGuarero highway, elev. 100-150 m, 5 Jun 1977, Bunting 5130 (NY).

Conservation status.

We consider this species to be of Least Concern because of its broad range and often large populations, moreover it is widely cultivated.

Discussion.

This species is compared to Spondias globosa in the discussion under the latter species. The occurrence of a number of distinct intermediates between Spondias mombin and several other species suggests the possibility that this species is prone to hybridization (see discussion above in sections treating the genus as a whole).