Ceratophyllidae, Dampf, 1908

Vanstreels, Ralph Eric Thijl, Palma, Ricardo L. & Mironov, Sergey V., 2020, Arthropod parasites of Antarctic and Subantarctic birds and pinnipeds: A review of host-parasite associations, International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 12, pp. 275-290 : 281-282

3.2. Fleas ( Ceratophyllidae , Pygiopsyllidae and Rhopalopsyllidae )

Fleas are haematophagous parasites of mammals and birds ( Durden and Hinkle, 2019). Fleas of seabirds are predominantly nest-dwelling ( Meillon, 1952; Bell et al., 1988), and as a result even though they can be generalists with regards to their hosts within an island group, their populations are often isolated between different island groups ( Meillon, 1952).

Seventeen species/subspecies were recorded from Antarctic birds ( Table 2): Ceratophyllidae was represented by one species, Pygiopsyllidae by four species/subspecies from two genera and Rhopalopsyllidae by 12 species/subspecies from two genera. The genera Notiopsylla ( Pygiopsyllidae ) and Parapsyllus ( Rhopalopsyllidae ) comprise most of the flea diversity in the Antarctic region, infesting predominantly Procellariiformes birds at Subantarctic islands. It is worth noting that the subspecies of Parapsyllus magellanicus Jordan, 1938 show clear differences in their geographic distribution. Based on current records, P. m. heardi is restricted to the Indian Ocean (Prince Edward, Crozet, Kerguelen and Heard Islands), P. m. largificus is endemic to the Bounty Islands and P. m. magellanicus occurs in the Southwest Atlantic ( South Georgia and Falkland Islands) and Pacific Oceans (Antipodes, Snares and Macquarie Islands) ( Smit, 1979, 1984; Chastel and Beaucournu, 1992). The subspecies of Notiopsylla kerguelensis ( Taschenberg, 1880) also show considerable differences in geographic distribution: N. k. kerguelensis is a common parasite of Procellariiformes in Subantarctic islands throughout the Southern Ocean, including the Antipodes Islands ( Jordan and Rothschild, 1908; Meillon, 1952; Beaucournu and Rodhain, 1990; Chastel and Beaucournu, 1992), whereas N. k. tenuata is an abundant parasite of the Antipodes parakeet ( Cyanoramphus unicolor ) and frequently shifts onto Procellariiformes nesting in the Antipodes Islands, but has not been recorded elsewhere ( Smit, 1979).

Glaciopsyllus antarcticus Smit and Dunnet, 1962 ( Ceratophyllidae ) stands out among fleas as the only species able to thrive in the extreme conditions of the Antarctic continent, being commonly found in the nests of Procellariidae (and occasionally Oceanitidae ) ( Murray et al., 1967; Whitehead et al., 1991; Steele et al., 1997). It has been speculated that this species survives through the Antarctic winter by overwintering on the hosts ( Bell et al., 1988; Whitehead et al., 1991), however the observation that some of adult fleas survive after having been stored at −20 ̊C for 4 months suggests that it may have unexpected physiological characteristics that could allow it to over-winter in Antarctica ( Steele et al., 1997) .

It is worth noting that although Listronius robertsianus ( Jordan, 1938) ( Rhopalopsyllidae ) is considered a valid species, its host is not entirely clear. This species was described from specimens collected in 1936 from a burrow with a shared entrance for white-chinned petrel ( Procellaria aequinoctialis ) and Magellanic penguin ( Spheniscus magellanicus ) at the Falkland Islands ( Jordan, 1938), and has not been recorded since. The other four species of the genus Listronius are parasitic on rodents ( Lewis, 1973; Beaucournu and Gallardo, 1991; Beaucournu et al., 2014). There are no native rodents in the Falkland Islands, and the only native terrestrial mammal of the archipelago, the Falklands wolf ( Dusicyon australis ), became extinct in 1876 (Sillero-Zubiri et al., 2004). However, Norway rats ( Rattus novergicus ) and black rats ( Rattus rattus ) were introduced to the Falkland Islands by whaling and sealing vessels in the late 1700s and are known to enter the burrows of white-chinned petrels to predate on their eggs and chicks ( Poncet et al., 2011). Therefore, whether L. robertsianus is parasitic of seabirds or rodents remains to be determined.

It should be noted that although Ceratophyllus gallinae (Schrank, 1803) and Pagipsylla galliralli (Smit, 1965) were reported respectively on a fairy prion ( Pachyptila turtur ) in mainland New Zealand and on a royal penguin ( Eudyptes chrysolophus schlegeli ) at the Snares Islands,

both of these fleas are primarily parasites of domestic poultry and terrestrial birds ( Smit, 1979). Therefore, these records probably correspond to stragglers and it is unlikely that these flea species could be established in the Antarctic region.