Reighardiidae

Vanstreels, Ralph Eric Thijl, Palma, Ricardo L. & Mironov, Sergey V., 2020, Arthropod parasites of Antarctic and Subantarctic birds and pinnipeds: A review of host-parasite associations, International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 12, pp. 275-290 : 282

3.3. Pentastomes ( Reighardiidae )

Pentastomes, also known as tongue worms, are parasites of almost all vertebrate classes ( Dabert, 2005; Poore, 2012). This group presents a mixture of annelid and crustacean characteristics, and genetic studies suggest they are most closely related to fish ectoparasites (Branchiura), representing a basal clade of Crustacea that diverged in the Cambrian period ( Sanders and Lee, 2010). Reighardia sternae (Diesing, 1864) is one of two pentastome species that infest birds as their definitive host, parasitizing the respiratory tract of Charadriiformes birds such as gulls and terns ( Laridae ), auks ( Alcidae ) and skuas ( Stercorariidae ) ( Threlfall, 1971; Riley, 1973; Hoberg, 1987). Although the life cycle of other pentastomes often involves larval development in an intermediate host (usually fishes), this is not the case for R. sternae , for which larval development appears to occur in the definitive host ( Riley, 1973; Banaja et al., 1976). As a result, transmission probably occurs directly through vomiting (during chick feeding or due to oesophageal irritation), coughing and sneezing ( Banaja et al., 1976; Dabert, 2005). In skuas, predation of infested gulls and terns could also serve as a potential route of transmission.

Reighardia sternae was recorded infesting kelp gulls ( Larus dominicanus ) and south polar skuas ( Catharacta maccormicki ) at Anvers Island, near the Antarctic Peninsula ( Hoberg, 1987). These are the only records of this parasite in the Antarctic region; however, it is likely that is also occurs in kelp gulls and south polar skuas throughout their distribution in the Antarctic region. Furthermore, brown skuas ( Catharacta antarctica ), Kerguelen terns ( Sterna virgata ) and Antarctic terns ( Sterna vittata ) are other potential hosts that have yet to be thoroughly evaluated.