Canis lupus, Linnaeus, 1758

Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2009, Canidae, Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp. 352-446 : 413

1.

Gray Wolf

Canis lupus

French: Loup gris / German: Wolf / Spanish: Lobo

Other common names: Wolf, Timber Wolf, Tundra Wolf, Arctic Wolf

Taxonomy. Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 ,

Sweden.

There have been two recent proposals for major taxonomic changes to the Gray Wolf in North America. One proposal, used in this account, reduces twenty-four North American subspecies to five. The other proposal is that molecular genetics data supports the theory that the Gray Wolves in eastern North America now classified as the subspecies lycaon evolved in North America and not in Eurasia. Canis lycaon has been proposed as the name of the Gray Wolf believed to have evolved in North America. Australasian Dingoes dingo, which evolved from a primitive dog transported to Australia by Asian seafarers about 4000 years ago, are here considered as a Gray Wolf subspecies. Earlier listed as C. antarticus or C. familiaris dingo . Today, the wild Dingo population comprises Dingoes, feral dogs, and hybrids of the two. The two Japanese subspecies of Gray Wolf from Hokkaido (hattai Kishida, 1931) and Honshu (hodophilax Temminck, 1839) are extinct. Eleven extant subspecies are recognized currently.

Subspecies and Distribution.

C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758 - Asia, Europe.

C. l. albus Kerr, 1792 — N Russia.

C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935 — Canadian High Arctic.

C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929 — Mexico, SW USA (extinct in the wild).

C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804 — C Russia.

C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923 — E-C Asia.

C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793 — SE Asia and Australasia.

C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775 — SE Canada, NE USA.

C. l. nubilus Say, 1823 — E-C Canada and C USA.

C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829 — Alaska, NW Canada.

C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831 — Middle East and SW Asia to India.

Descriptive notes. Head-body 100-130 cm for males and 87-117 cm for females, tail 40-52 cm for males and 35-50 cm for females. The Gray Wolf is the largest wild canid, weighing up to 62 kg. The general appearance and proportions are not unlike those of a large German Shepherd dog, except the legs are longer, feet larger, ears shorter, the eyes are slanted,the tail is curled, the winter fur is longer and bushier, and the Wolf has chin tufts in winter. The furis thick and usually mottled gray, but can vary from nearly pure white, red, or brown to black. Dental formula13/3,C1/1, PM 4/4, M 2/3 = 42.

Habitat. All northern habitats where there is suitable food, with highest densities where prey biomass is highest. In west Asia and north-east Africa present in very arid environments. Dingoes are found in all habitats from tropical alpine moorlands to tropical wetlands and forests to arid hot deserts.

Food and Feeding. Extremely variable, but main prey consists of large ungulates (Moose Alces sp., Reindeer Rangifer tarandus , deer, Wild Boar Sus scropha, etc.). Gray Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage. In winter, they hunt in packs, but in summer they hunt singly, in pairs, or in small groups. Chases ranging from 100 m to more than 5 km are the rule. Generally Gray Wolves end up with, or tend to select, older individuals, juveniles (under 1 year) or debilitated animals, or those in otherwise poor condition. Average daily food consumption varies from 2-5-6- 3 kg or more per day, and kill rates vary accordingly. Wolvesfirst attack the rump of larger prey, but the head, shoulders, flanks, or rump of smaller prey. Usually they eat most of the carcass, leaving only the larger bones and chunks of hide. When there is surplus food, wolves will cache either regurgitated chunks or large pieces. Dingoes, eat a diverse range of prey types and over 170 species have been identified ranging from insects to buffalo, with the main prey in Australia composed of magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata), Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis), Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus); Wallaroos (Macropus robustus), wallabies (Wallabia bicolor, Macropus rufogriseus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ), rodents (Rattus villosisimus, R. colletti, Mus musculus) and lizards ( Ctenophorus nuchalis ). In Asia, Dingoes live commensally with humans in most regions and their main food items are rice, fruit, and other table scraps provided by people or scavenged.

Activity patterns. Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, but activity periods may extend well into daylight hours in areas where they are free from persecution. Predominantly diurnal in the Arctic summer.

Movements, Home range and Social organization. Gray Wolves live in packs, which mostly comprise family groups. The dominant pair breeds, and other maturing females are reproductively suppressed unless food is abundant. Packs may include up to 36 individuals, but smaller size packs (5-12) are more common. They occupy territories of 75-2500 km * depending on prey density. Territories are maintained by howling, scent marking, and direct killing. Dingoes are usually seen alone, but when undisturbed most individuals belong to discrete and stable packs of 3-12 Dingoes occupy territories throughout the year. The largest recorded home ranges (90-300 km?) occur in the deserts of south-western Australia. Elsewhere they range from 10-113 km? Some Dingoes disperse, especially young males; the longest recorded distance for a tagged Dingo is about 250 km.

Breeding. Mating takes place from January to April, depending on latitude. Gestation is nine weeks. Dens are in holes, caves, pits, hollow logs, protruding tree roots or fallen trees. Litter size is 1-11 (mean 6). Duration of lactation is 8-10 weeks. Age at sexual maturity is 22-46 months, occasionally ten months. Dingoes breed once each year, with litters of 1-10 (mean 5) usually whelped in winter (May to July). Pups usually become independent at 3-6 months.

Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Current legal protection varies from well enforced and complete protection to concerted efforts to control certain populations. Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement, and development of the Wolf's range, Gray Wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Population densities vary from approximately 0-08 to 0-008 individuals per km*. Population status is fully viable across Canada and Alaska, but Gray Wolves have been extinct in Newfoundland since 1911. Threatened in Greenland ( Denmark). Endangered in north-west USA, and viable, increasing or reintroduced in other USA range states. Highly endangered in Mexico. Rare and threatened to fully viable in Europe, stable to fully viable in north and Central Asia, highly endangered to viable/ declining in the Middle East, and declining to endangered in southern Asia. Dingoes are listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, but are considered a pest throughout much of the remaining range. The Gray Wolf's original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the USA, by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to predation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested Gray Wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the USA, and reintroduction in the western USA. Continued threats include competition with humansfor livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated fears by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small to maintain viable populations in the long term.

Bibliography. Boitani (1995), Carbyn et al. (1995), Corbett (1995, 2004), Corbett & Newsome (1987), Daniels & Corbett (2003), Fuller (1989), Harrington & Paquet (1982), Koler-Matznick et al. (2000), Mech (1970, 1974, 2002), Mech & Boitani (2003, 2004), Mech et al. (1998), Nowak (1995), Wilson et al. (2000), Young & Goldman (1944).

Figures

1. Gray Wolf (Canis lupus)

Subspecies and Distribution. C. lupus Linnaeus, 1758 - Asia, Europe. C. l. albus Kerr, 1792 — N Russia . C. l. arctos Pocock, 1935 — Canadian High Arctic. C. l. baileyi Nelson & Goldman, 1929 — Mexico , SW USA (extinct in the wild). C. l. communis Dwigubski, 1804 — C Russia . C. l. cubanensis Ognev, 1923 — E-C Asia. C. l. dingo Meyer, 1793 — SE Asia and Australasia. C. l. lycaon Schreber, 1775 — SE Canada , NE USA . C. l. nubilus Say, 1823 — E-C Canada and C USA . C. l. occidentalis Richardson, 1829 — Alaska, NW Canada . C. l. pallipes Sykes, 1831 — Middle East and SW Asia to India .