Tapirus bairdii (Gill, 1865)

Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tapiridae, Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp. 182-204 : 200-201

2.

Central American Tapir

Tapirus bairdii

French: Tapir de Baird / German: Mittelamerika-Tapir / Spanish: Tapir centroamericano

Other common names: Baird's Tapir

Taxonomy. Elasmognathus bairdu Gill, 1865, Isthmus of Panama, Panama.

Recent studies have suggested to include it in the genus Tapirella . Monotypic.

Distribution. SE Mexico to NW Colombia; formerly also W Ecuador S to Gulf of Guayaquil, but their occurrence there is now uncertain.

Descriptive notes. Head-body 200-230 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height in adults approximately 120 cm; weight 250-350 kg. The Central American Tapir is the largest of the three Latin American species and is the largest terrestrial mammal found in the Neotropics. The Central American Tapir is dark brown or grayish-brown and has a distinctive cream-colored marking on its face and throat and a dark spot on each cheek, behind and below the eye. The edges of the ears are white. Like the other species of tapir, they have small stubby tails and a long, flexible proboscis.

Habitat. The Central American Tapir is generally found in humid habitats, from sea level to 3600 m. The speciesis strongly associated with water and is found in marsh and swamp areas, mangroves, wet tropical rainforest, riparian woodland, monsoon deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, montane cloud forest and paramos. Overall, Central American Tapirs prefer habitat types with permanent water bodies, diverse and dense understory, riparian vegetation, low incidence offires, and less hunting pressure and human presence. Some studies in Mexico have noted that Central American Tapirs prefer densely forested areas rather than open, more disturbed habitats. In the mixed deciduous forest of Santa Rosa National Park in the north-west of Costa Rica, the tapirs relied on small pools of water in dried-up riverbeds for their drinking and wallowing requirements. Much of the habitat there was subclimax forest. In Corcovado National Park, also in Costa Rica, tapir sign (tracks, dung, rubbings, and evidence of foraging) was more abundant in lowland, second-growth forests and palm swamps than mature forests. In fact, tapirs in Corcovado strongly selected secondary forests and avoided mature forests. Seasonal variations in habitat selection correlated with fruit availability were observed. Tapir sign in Corcovado showed positive correlation with distance from perennial water bodies and rain intensity; there was a negative correlation between sign and slope steepness. Central American Tapirs have been observed in the Costa Rican paramos, particularly near ponds surrounded by dense bush of Chusquea . Lacking a dense hair coat like that of the Mountain Tapir, an extraordinarily thick skin and subcutaneous fat deposits probably help Central American Tapirs withstand the low temperatures prevailing in the paramos. In La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, tapir sign has been observed along mountain crests at 1000-1500 m. These mountain crests are often covered by strips of oak forest, which are believed to be used by tapirs as both marking sites and transit areas between tropical subdeciduous and montane cloud forest slopes.

Food and Feeding. The Central American Tapir selectively consumes a wide array of fruit, leaves, shoots, bark, and flowers. Long-term direct observations of one Central American Tapir in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, revealed that these animals consume an average of 15-63 kg of fruit and fibrous materials per day. The tapir observed consumed 126 different plant species. The percentages of bites taken of each food item during the study were 67% leaves, 18:6% fruits, 11-7% stems, 2-1% bark, and 0-1% flowers. Three species accounted for 40% ofthe tapir’s bites for the entire study. The information available on feeding habits of Central American Tapirs in Mexico comes from a few studies in which about 98 plant species of 50 families were recorded as consumed by this ungulate. The plant families most frequently represented in the diet of Central American Tapirs in Mexico are Asteraceae , Fabaceae , Moraceae , Rubiaceae , and Solanaceae . A previous study carried out in a tropical lowland forest in Guatemala noted that 49 species of plants are consumed by tapirs, with three species representing the highest percentage of the diet. Asteraceae , Euphorbiaceae , and Rubiaceae were the most important plant families. In the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, plant species of the families Arecaceae , Euphorbiaceae , Moraceae , and Rubiaceae accounted for 33% of total plant species in the tapirs’ diet. Asteraceae , Ericaceae , and Poaceae (especially Chusquea subtessellata ) seem to be the predominant plant families in the 3000 m high paramos of Chirripé National Park, Costa Rica. The most evident changes in proportions of food items ingested by Central American Tapirs throughout the year are those related to fruit consumption. Fruit usually constitutes a smaller proportion of the diet of Central American Tapirs compared to leaves and other fiber sources. Average fruit proportions found in their feces generally ranges from 7-1% to 18:6% in different areas. However, in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, some fecal samples consisted almost entirely of fruit pieces and tapirs there depended heavily on a wide range offruits (and fruit sizes) during the dry season. Fruit provides significant amounts of the nutrition and calories consumed by this ungulate. Palm swamps composed primarily of Raphia taedigera and Bactris balanoidea are regularly patrolled by the tapirs and other ungulates, White-lipped Peccaries (7ayassu pecari) in particular, in search of fruit. The role of Central American Tapirs in seed dispersal and seed predation is not completely understood but studies in Santa Rosa demonstrated that they widely dispersed viable seeds of many species in their dung, including seeds incidentally ingested while browsing. In Guatemala and Mexico, Central American Tapirs appear to be important dispersers of Manilkara zapota seeds.

Breeding. Most information about reproduction of Central American Tapirs in the wild comes from a long-term field study carried out in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. Direct and indirect evidence from this study indicates that they are facultatively polygamous. Adult female tapirs usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. The calf stays with its mother for 12-18 months. An adult female Central American Tapir was monitored in Corcovado for approximately 14 years. During this period, this female produced nine offspring at intervals of approximately 18 months. Reports from zoos and field observations for wild tapirs in Corcovado indicate that females may become pregnant while lactating, which can reduce the interbirth interval to 16 months. Some females may lose their offspring during lactation, or due to stillbirths or neonatal deaths, and come into estrus sooner, therefore reducing the interbirth interval. Lastly, veterinarians who were part of the field team in Corcovado found pregnant females who had month-old calves; the females were one month pregnant, the fetus visible on ultrasound. Thus, it is highly probable that tapirs present a “foal heat” similar to horses, coming into estrus immediately after giving birth and able to get pregnant. The AZA Studbook for Central American Tapirs notes that tapirs in captivity sire their first offspring as young as two years old. A Central American Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2005 modelled the dynamics of populations in the wild. Because conditions are assumed to be harsher in the wild than in captivity, the age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years, for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Central American Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Although field data from Corcovado shows a larger —although not significant— percentage of males, there is no evidence to suggest a skewed sex ratio at birth.

Activity patterns. Central American Tapirs are substantially more active nocturnally than during the day. Their main peaks of activity are between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and 03:00 h and 04:00 h. In Santa Rosa National Park, tapirs were often active for short periods during the day, particularly in the dry season, when they entered residual pools in riverbeds to rest. However, tapirs are known to become almost completely nocturnal when there is heavy hunting pressure.

Movements, Home range and Social organization. The mean home range size of Central American Tapirs studied via radio-telemetry in the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, was 1-25 km®. Male tapirs showed somewhat larger but not statistically different average home ranges than females. Researchers found no seasonal changes in size or location of home ranges. In the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park, also in Costa Rica, mean tapir home range size was 1-71 km? These home range variations may be due to differences in dominant vegetation types in those areas, as well as a considerably lower number of perennial water bodies in the latter. Tapir home ranges in Corcovado highly overlapped (33-16%) those of neighboring individuals. Central American Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for 12-18 months. It has been found that once they separate, in most cases, young tapirs in Corcovado stay in the vicinity of the mother’s home range for 3—4years prior to dispersal from the area and establishment of their own home ranges. Therefore, the ranging behavior of tapirs in Corcovado included the establishment of so called “family units,” where pairs of adult male and female tapirs maintained an almost entirely exclusive “territory” with no other resident adults over long periods of time, which they shared with 1-3 offspring from previous years. Although very high percentages of home range overlap occur within the family units, very little overlap occurs between neighboring tapir families. Estimates of Central American Tapir population density vary widely, ranging from a high 1-6 ind/km? in Corcovado National Park to a very low 0-21 ind/km? in the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park. The data from Corcovado National Park may not be applicable to other populations, as the region ofthis research (Sirena Biological Station) has a unique mixture of ideal habitat and almost complete protection from poaching, which perhaps contributes to higher density of the species.

Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Central American Tapir had a continuous distribution from south-eastern Mexico to the northern portion of Colombia (west of the Cauca River) to the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador. The historic distribution ofthis species covered 1,186,300 km®. High rates of habitat destruction and fragmentation throughoutits former range have resulted in the current tapir distribution, which is mostly restricted to protected and/or remote areas in eight countries. A recent range extension of 377 km brought Central American Tapir to a new northern limit; La Tuza de Monroy, near the municipality of Santiago Jamiltepec in Oaxaca, Mexico. In Colombia, the species is present in Los Katios National Park. This population is poorly understood due to the presence of guerrilla activity, which has made research in the area extremely difficult. Anecdotally, biologists in Los Katios report that there are a few tapirs between the park and the Pacific Ocean. Large fragments of forest extending to the Pacific, combined with the Darien region, which is shared with the Republic of Panama, could have 160 km? of habitat for a total of 227 km?There is an ongoing reduction of Central American Tapir populations estimated to be greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth oftapirs, coupled with habitat loss/fragmentation and hunting, are the main factors contributing to population declines. It is estimated that approximately 70% of Central American forests have been lost through deforestation and alteration over the last 40 years. In Costa Rica alone, it is now estimated that 80% of the country has been deforested, up from about 67% approximately 25 years ago. Overall, it is inferred that at least 50% of the Central American Tapir habitat has been lost in the past three generations, causing drastic population declines and making remnant populations more susceptible to extinction from natural disasters and disease. This rate of decline is predicted to continue. In Belize, unremitting forest destruction and fragmentation of the Selva Maya continues to threaten tapir populations. The construction of roads through the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala is likely to become a major problem for tapirs in that area, as well as the isolation of smaller protected areas. In Costa Rica, logging and destructive farming practices are widespread. Gold mining is another problem in some parts of this country. The effect of hunting is notable given that Central American Tapirs are common where not hunted and nearly absent where hunting pressure is high. Even minimal hunting has proven to significantly decrease their populations, which is expected given their low reproductive rate. Some evidence exists that tapirs are susceptible and have been exposed to pathogens that also cause disease in livestock and horses; however, to date, there is no proof that infectious diseases have caused significant mortalities or have affected population levels. Nevertheless, several adult tapirs have been found dead nearlivestock areas in Chimalapas rain forest, Mexico, and were thought to have died from infectious diseases. Although most Central American Tapir populations have not been quantified and monitored yet, the current overall population estimate for this species is approximately 5000 mature individuals ( Mexico, 1000; Belize, no current estimates; Guatemala, 1000; Honduras, 500; Nicaragua, 500; Costa Rica, 1000; Panama, 1000; Colombia, 250). There appear to be several strongholds for tapir populations, including La Amistad International Park in Costa Rica and Panama. The Selva Maya shared by Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico is the largest continuoustract of forest where Central American Tapirs can be found. Recent surveys in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, found tapirs to be among the most abundant large vertebrates above 2000 m elevation, where large populationsstill remain in areas where they are not hunted. In the Republic of Panama, reports suggest that tapirs are distributed continuously along the forests of the Caribbean slope. Their range extends from Bocas del Toro Province in western Panama throughout the Panama Canal watershed to the Kuna Yala Comarca. These reports also confirmed their presence along the Cordillera Central in western Panama, including prime habitat above 3000 m,as well as in the Darien region near the Colombian border. The Mosquitia area of Honduras and Nicaragua is particularly important because of its large size and low human population density. The species is believed to have been extirpated from El Salvador, but there are recent sightings and reports suggesting the speciesstill persists there at some level. Central American Tapirs occur in a number of protected areas throughout their range. Six large Biosphere Reserves in Campeche, Chiapas, and Quintana Roo in Mexico are thought to hold numerous tapirs. In Guatemala, the Maya and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserves could hold several hundred more individuals, as could some other small parks in Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Although the species is protected nationally throughout its range, these laws are often not enforced in many areas.

Bibliography. Barongi (1986, 1993), Bolanos & Naranjo (2001), Brooks et al. (1997), Carrillo et al. (2000), Castellanos et al. (2008), CITES (2005), Eisenberg & Redford (1999), Escamilla et al. (2000), Foerster (1998), Foerster & Medici (2002), Foerster & Vaughan (2002), Fragoso (1991a, 1991b), Garcia (2006), Garcia, Leonardo et al. (2009), Garcia, Ruiz & Morales (2008), Harmsen et al. (2009), Hernédndez-Divers et al. (2005), Hernandez-Divers & Foerster (2001), Hershkovitz (1954), Lira et al. (2004), Medici (2001, 2010), Medici et al. (2006), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia (2002), Muench (2001), Naranjo (1995, 2009), Naranjo & Bodmer (2002), Naranjo & Cruz-Aldan (1998), Read (1986), Reid (1997), Schipper et al. (2008), Terwilliger (1978), Tobler (2002), Tobler et al. (2006), Vié et al. (2009), Williams (1984).

Figures

1. Lowland Tapir (Tapirus terrestris), 2. Central American Tapir (Tapirus bairdii), 3. Mountain Tapir (Tapirus pinchaque), 4. Malayan Tapir (Tapirus indicus)

Distribution. SE Mexico to NW Colombia ; formerly also W Ecuador S to Gulf of Guayaquil, but their occurrence there is now uncertain.